Table of Contents
Meat, the muscular tissue obtained from slaughtered animals, is composed of bundles of muscle fibers. Each fiber consists of water, protein, various salts, and extractives. These fibers are interconnected and attached to the animals’ bones through connective tissues and tendons.
White meat, such as veal, rabbit, and chicken, has a softer texture with lower fat and connective tissues. On the other hand, red meat, found in pork, beef, lamb, etc., contains more fat and connective tissues, resulting in enhanced flavor. Lean meat contains minimal fat without excess fat.
Different Cuts of Meat (from cow):
Head, Neck, Chuck, Rib Roast, Wing-end sirloin, Sirloin or T-Bone Steak, Diamond Bone Steak, Rump Steak, Aitch-Bone, Lap, Brisket, Housekeeper’s Cut, Shoulder’s Ring, Button-end, Shin Beef, Ox Tongue, Oxtail, Round, Leg Beef.
Methods of Cooking Meat:
Meaning of Offals:
Offals refer to the edible parts of animals’ internal organs, including liver, kidney, tripe, sweetbread, tongue, brain, and lungs. They offer high-quality protein, minerals, and vitamins. Offals are perishable and should be cooked promptly without refrigeration, requiring thorough cleaning and freshness upon purchase.
Poultry refers to the meat obtained from certain domesticated birds such as chickens, guinea fowls, turkeys, ducks, and pigeons. The nutritional composition of poultry is akin to that of meat derived from other animals. Notably, in poultry, particularly in fowls and turkeys, fat is situated beneath the skin and around the giblet, rather than being interspersed between the muscle fibers as in meat. Poultry generally has lower fat content compared to meat, making it more easily digestible.
Poultry can be categorized into two types: white meat and dark meat. White meat comprises the breast and wing meat, while dark meat is obtained from the legs. White meat is known for its higher digestibility, attributed to its less muscular and finer fiber structure, whereas dark meat, originating from the more active leg muscles, tends to be coarser and less easily digestible.
Different species of poultry are classified based on age, including young and mature stages for chickens, turkeys, and ducks.
Regarding the nutritional value of poultry, it is rich in high-quality protein, containing all essential amino acids. Poultry also has minimal fat, primarily concentrated under the skin and around the giblet. While it provides small quantities of B-Complex vitamins, there is less nicotinic acid around the legs compared to the breast. Poultry meat is water-rich and contains minerals such as iron and phosphorus.
When selecting poultry, factors such as the presence of down feathers, ease of removing quills, absence of long hair on the thigh, small and bright red comb and wattles, smooth and pliable legs with slightly overlapping scales, supple feet, and plump breast should be considered. The weight of the body should exceed that of the feathers, and the eyes of the bird should be bright and lively. Additionally, there should be no grains of corn in the crop.
In terms of preparation, it is recommended to kill the birds at least one hour before cooking to allow for the passage of ‘Rigor Mortis.’ The carcass should be suspended for additional hours for increased tenderness, followed by immersion in boiling water to facilitate feather removal. After plucking and singeing, the bird is cleaned, cut into desired pieces, and internal organs are carefully removed.
Various methods can be employed for cooking poultry, including broiling, frying, roasting, and grilling.
Egg Structure:
Eggs, originating from domesticated birds like chickens, turkeys, ducks, geese, and guinea fowls, typically weigh around 56 grams. They are encased in a protective hard shell, which can be either white or brown, the color being dependent on the breed of the chicken. The shape of eggs is spherical, with one end pointed and the other end blunt. Beneath the shell, two inner membranes create an air space at the blunt end. The egg’s center contains the yolk, anchored by cord-like structures known as Chalazae. Surrounding the yolk is the Vitaline membrane, followed by the thick egg white, the abundance of which indicates the egg’s quality.
Nutritive Value of Eggs:
Protein: Eggs offer a biologically valuable and easily digestible source of protein, making them a suitable substitute for meat, fish, and poultry.
Vitamins: Eggs contain Vitamins A, D, and B-Complex, with both the yolk and white being rich in riboflavin, imparting a slightly greenish tint to the egg white.
Mineral Salts: Mineral salts such as iron, sulfur, phosphorus, and calcium are abundant in eggs.
Water: The yolk comprises 51 percent water, while the white contains 87 percent, indicating a reasonable water content in eggs.
Fat: The yolk contains a considerable amount of fat, distinguishing it from the fat-free egg white. Eggs lack carbohydrates or starch and should be combined with carbohydrate foods for bulk.
Selecting Fresh Eggs:
Uses of Eggs in Cookery:
Eggs serve various purposes in cooking:
Milk And Dairy Products
Milk, a creamy liquid produced by the mammary glands of female mammals to nourish their offspring, is sourced from various animals such as cows, horses, goats, and sheep. While cow’s milk is the most widely used globally, it is crucial to note that its status as nature’s perfect food applies primarily to infants. For adults, the nutrient proportions are not ideal, as the carbohydrate content is too low, and it lacks sufficient iron and vitamin C. However, milk remains highly valuable for invalids and convalescents due to its rich nutritional profile and ease of digestion.
Nutritional Content Of Milk
The nutrient composition of whole milk is detailed below:
Composition of Whole Milk
The composition of whole milk encompasses a combination of essential nutrients, each contributing to its overall nutritional profile:
Carbohydrate (4.9%):
Milk contains carbohydrates, primarily in the form of lactose. Lactose is a disaccharide, less sweet than common sucrose, and exhibits lower solubility. While the carbohydrate content in milk is crucial for energy, it is notably higher in lactose.
Protein (3.9%):
Whole milk serves as a valuable source of protein, with the predominant protein being casein. Additionally, milk contains albumin and globulin, making it a protein-rich beverage. Importantly, the protein in milk is rich in essential amino acids, contributing to its significance in the diet.
Fat (3.7%):
The fat content in whole milk varies among individual cows, but during industrial processing, milk is blended to achieve consistent fat content. The fat in milk contributes to its creamy texture and adds to the overall caloric content. It is worth noting that fat-soluble vitamins, such as vitamin A, are also present in whole milk.
Water (87.2%):
The largest component of whole milk is water, constituting a significant percentage of its composition. Water serves as a carrier for other nutrients, aiding in digestion and overall hydration. The liquid nature of milk makes it a refreshing and easily consumable beverage.
Ash (0.7%):
The ash content in milk represents the mineral residue left after complete combustion. While it comprises a relatively small percentage, the ash content is essential for understanding the mineral composition of milk. Milk is notably rich in essential minerals such as calcium and phosphorus, although it is low in iron.
The intricate combination of carbohydrates, proteins, fats, water, and ash in whole milk creates a well-rounded nutritional package, making it a valuable and versatile component of the human diet.
Milk offers a balanced mix of carbohydrates, fats, and proteins. Lactose, the milk carbohydrate, is a disaccharide less sweet than sucrose and less soluble. The fat content varies among individual cows but is regulated during processing. Milk is a rich source of high-quality protein, with casein being the primary protein. Additionally, it contains essential amino acids, vitamins (A, D, E, K, riboflavin), and minerals like calcium and phosphorus, though it is low in iron.
TYPES OF MILK
Milk Products
Uses Of Yoghurt
Uses Of Cheese
Fish and seafood are aquatic organisms found in both fresh and saltwater environments. They are broadly categorized into two main groups:
Fin fish, characterized by the presence of fins on their bodies, are further divided into two major subgroups:
White or lean fish: These fish store their fat in the liver rather than between muscle fibers, resulting in white-colored flesh. Examples include cod, halibut, tilapia, and bream. The oil extracted from the liver of some large fish, like cod, is utilized for medicinal purposes, such as cod liver oil.
Oily or fat fish: This subgroup has fat distributed throughout their bodies, particularly in the muscle fibers, giving their flesh a dark appearance. Examples include herrings, mackerel, and salmon.
Shellfish, characterized by a protective shell covering their flesh, can be classified into two groups:
Whitefish, due to its higher water content and lower fat, is nutritionally less valuable compared to oily fish. Shellfish, on the other hand, is valued for its protein content, along with beneficial B vitamins and iodine. Finfish are predominantly caught in freshwater, while shellfish are typically harvested from oceans and saltwater environments.
Nutritive value of fish:
Fish, like meat, is a rich source of protein containing all essential amino acids. Fish protein is more tender and digestible than meat. While fish generally has lower fat content than most meats, its mineral content varies. Calcium content is low in many fish types, but those canned with bones can be an excellent source of calcium if consumed with the bones. Oysters are particularly rich in iron. Fish from the sea are good sources of iodine, present in seawater. Fish also provide B-complex vitamins, with fatty fish being rich in fat-soluble vitamins A and D. Fish lacks carbohydrates and should be combined with carbohydrate-rich foods.
Fish cuts:
Different cuts include whole or round fish, drawn fish with removed internal organs, dressed fish with scales, head, tail, and fins removed, steaks sliced cross-sectionally from a large dressed fish, and fillets, which are practically boneless sides cut lengthwise from the backbone.
Methods of cooking food:
Various cooking methods for fish include frying, boiling, stewing, steaming, and grilling.
Herbs, Spices, Food Flavoring, And Coloring
Belonging to the category of “Food Additives,” herbs and spices are intentionally incorporated into food to enhance aspects such as appearance, color, texture, flavor, nutritive values, aroma, and taste, as well as to preserve the food. These natural additives stimulate the appetite and boost digestive juices, facilitating easier digestion. While herbs typically come from plant leaves, spices are derived from plant roots, seeds, buds, or bark. It’s advisable to purchase herbs and spices in small quantities to ensure freshness, as their essential oils, responsible for characteristic flavor and aroma, are volatile.
Categorization of Herbs and Spices
Herbs can be broadly classified into two groups: Natural and Artificial.
Natural herbs and spices are used directly, without undergoing industrial processing.
Artificial herbs and spices are industrially produced after undergoing certain processing.
In the realm of culinary enhancements, the array of natural herbs and spices, as well as their artificial counterparts, offers a rich tapestry of flavors and aromas to elevate the essence of various dishes. Delving into the natural side, we encounter an assortment of botanical wonders:
Natural Herbs & Spices:
Moving to the realm of artificial herbs and spices, the landscape transforms with the introduction of industrially processed elements:
Artificial Herbs & Spices:
In addition to these, a medley of aromatic elements like ginger, garlic, onion, red pepper, mustard seed, and fermented melon (ogiri or iru) further expands the culinary palette, offering a spectrum of flavours to cater to diverse tastes and preferences. Whether derived directly from nature or crafted through industrial processes, these herbs and spices play an integral role in shaping the culinary landscape, turning ordinary meals into extraordinary sensory experiences.
Food Flavouring And Colouring
Flavourings are substances added to food to enhance flavor, aroma, texture, and, in some cases, taste. Colourings are added to improve food color, making it aesthetically appealing. Both can be classified as natural or artificial. Natural ones are directly derived from plants, while artificial ones are chemically modified extracts produced industrially. Certain chemicals, known as flavour enhancers, are also added to food.
Examples of Flavouring
In the realm of flavouring agents, both natural and artificial varieties play pivotal roles in enhancing the culinary experience. Here is an exploration of the diverse offerings in each category:
Natural flavoring:
The natural and artificial flavourings presented here showcase the diverse spectrum of tastes that can be introduced to culinary creations, each contributing its own unique essence to the world of gastronomy.
Examples of Colouring
In the realm of food additives, both natural and artificial substances play crucial roles in enhancing the flavour, appearance, and overall appeal of various culinary creations. Among these additives, there are specific examples of both natural and artificial elements that contribute to the sensory experience of consuming food.
Natural Flavourings and Colourings:
A naturally occurring pigment found in fruits and vegetables, carotene is responsible for vibrant orange hues in foods like carrots and sweet potatoes. Beyond its coloration, carotene also offers nutritional benefits as a precursor to vitamin A.
Derived from the green pigment in plants, chlorophyll imparts a rich green color to foods. Its presence in leafy vegetables, such as spinach and kale, not only contributes to colour but also signifies the presence of essential nutrients.
Recognized for its warm yellow tint, turmeric is a spice often used in various cuisines. Beyond its coloring properties, turmeric boasts anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties, adding a health dimension to its culinary role.
Found in certain fruits like berries, anthocyanins are natural pigments responsible for red, purple, or blue hues. These compounds not only provide color but also offer potential health benefits, including antioxidant effects.
Carotenoids encompass a broad range of pigments present in fruits and vegetables, contributing to red, orange, and yellow colors. Besides their role in coloration, carotenoids, such as lycopene and beta-carotene, have antioxidant properties.
Extracted from the Crocus sativus flower, saffron adds a distinctive yellow-orange color and a unique flavor to dishes. Its scarcity and labor-intensive harvesting contribute to its reputation as a luxurious spice.
Derived from the cochineal insect, this natural dye provides a red hue. Despite its origin, cochineal has been used historically in various cultures and continues to be utilized in certain food products as a natural coloring agent.
Synthesized from coal tar derivatives, these artificial dyes are employed to achieve a spectrum of vibrant colors in a wide array of processed foods, including ice cream and jellies. While effective in enhancing visual appeal, they are subject to regulatory scrutiny due to concerns about potential health effects.
A synthetic derivative of burnt sugar, vanilla caraynel is utilized as an artificial flavoring agent. Although it mimics the taste of natural vanilla, it lacks the complexity of the natural compound derived from vanilla beans.
The juxtaposition of natural and artificial flavorings and colorings underscores the diverse sources and purposes of these additives in the culinary world. From the nutritional richness of natural compounds to the precise control offered by artificial additives, the interplay between these elements continues to shape the sensory landscape of our food experiences.
Uses Of Food Additives
Food additives serve various purposes:
Fish and seafood, denizens of both freshwater and saltwater environments, fall into two primary categories:
Fin fish, which possess fins on their bodies, can be further categorized into two main groups:
White or lean fish: These store fat in their livers rather than between muscle fibers, resulting in white flesh. Examples include cod, halibut, tilapia, and bream. The liver oil of some large fish, like cod, is extracted for medicinal purposes.
Oily or fat fish: These types of fin fish have fat distributed throughout their bodies, particularly in muscle fibers. Their flesh appears dark due to the presence of oil. Examples include herrings, mackerel, and salmon.
Shellfish, characterized by a protective shell, are divided into two subgroups. One has a soft body shielded by a shell (e.g., oysters, mollusks, clams, and scallops), while the other has a segmented, crust-like shell (e.g., lobsters, shrimps, crabs, and crayfish).
White fish, due to their higher water content and lower fat, are less nutritionally dense compared to oily fish. Shellfish derive their nutritional value from protein, B-vitamins, and iodine. Most fin fish are captured in freshwater, while shellfish are harvested from oceans and saltwater.
Nutritive Value of Fish:
Fish, akin to meat, serves as a rich source of protein containing all essential amino acids. Fish protein is more tender and digestible than meat. While fish generally have lower fat content than most meats, their mineral content varies. Canned fish with bones can be excellent sources of calcium. Oysters are particularly rich in iron, and fish from the sea contribute iodine. Most fish also provide B-complex vitamins, with fatty fish being rich in fat-soluble vitamins A and D. Fish lack carbohydrates, so they are commonly paired with carbohydrate-rich foods.
Fish Cuts:
Methods of Cooking Fish:
The kitchen can be likened to a scientific lab where family meals are prepared. The tools and equipment used in the kitchen facilitate efficient food preparation, ranging from large appliances to smaller utensils. These kitchen tools can be categorized based on their functionality:
Large Appliances
Mechanical Equipment
Appliances like refrigerators, food mixers, slicers, and choppers that aid in various kitchen tasks.
Tools and Utensils
Measuring Tools
Cookers
Sinks
Refrigerators
Food Mixers
Kitchen Tools and Utensils
Wooden Tools
Measuring Tools
Scales help weigh ingredients accurately, while measuring cups and spoons assist in liquid and dry ingredient measurements. Ensure zero readings and level measurements for accuracy.
Devices, Uses & Care
MIXER: To blend cakes and pastry, wipe the base with wet napkins, clean the mixing bowl attachment with warm soapy water, dry, and store in a dry place.
YAM POUNDER: Utilized for pounding yam, wipe the base with a wet napkin, separate accessories, wash with soapy water, rinse, and dry.
PRESSURE COOKER: Ideal for tough cuts of meat, it operates quickly and conserves fuel. Follow usage instructions, wash with warm soapy water, rinse, and dry before storage.
Meat mincer: Primarily for grinding meat but versatile enough for nuts and vegetables. Separate the blade, wash with warm soapy water, rinse, and dry. Wrap blades in greasy paper and store in a dry place.
BLENDER: Used for pureeing and grinding ingredients, wipe the base with a wet napkin, wash the cup without letting water touch the bottom, and store in a dry place.
ORANGE SQUEEZER: Designed for squeezing juice from fruits like oranges, grapes, and lemons. Wash in warm soapy water, rinse, and dry before storing.
MICROWAVE OVEN: For warming food, with some models capable of baking cakes and grilling fish and meat. Clean the outside with a clean cloth and dry surfaces. Use a wet napkin to clean the inside and outside.
Factors To Consider When Choosing Kitchen Equipment And Labour-Saving Devices:
Energy is the internal capacity that empowers us to perform tasks. It is a resource inherent in humans, universally available but finite. Energy management involves the strategic planning and control of its usage to ensure conservation. Effectively managing energy allows for the accomplishment of more tasks in a shorter timeframe with reduced fatigue.
Time and energy management in the context of food preparation is the judicious allocation and utilization of planned time and energy to carry out cooking tasks efficiently. For instance, after completing meal preparation, the homemaker or food handler should ideally still be brimming with energy.
Tasks in food preparation that necessitate time and energy management include washing dishes and pots, weighing, cutting, and grinding ingredients, organizing the workspace and ingredients, cleaning and tidying the kitchen, cooking the meal, rearranging equipment on shelves, setting the table, and planning the workflow.
The significance of time and energy management in food preparation is multifaceted. It minimizes or eliminates prolonged cooking, making meal preparation more enjoyable and less tiring. Efficient management enables the preparation of multiple dishes and drinks within a specified timeframe, reduces fuel wastage, prevents kitchen accidents, speeds up the cooking process, fosters increased interest in cooking for homemakers, and, fundamentally, aims to conserve energy.
Guidelines for effective time and energy management include the use of a timetable or time plan to avoid confusion and ensure timely meal preparation without exhaustion. The kitchen layout should be organized to prevent unnecessary retracing of steps, and equipment should be arranged to align with the workflow.
Employing suitable methods for each dish, preparing adequately for meal preparation (such as avoiding uncomfortable attire), minimizing distractions, using appropriate cooking equipment, allocating time for washing utensils during the cooking process, and employing labor-saving devices where necessary, such as using trays for carrying dishes or electric blenders for grinding pepper, are recommended strategies. Additionally, incorporating convenient foods and effectively reheating leftovers can save both time and energy.
The term ‘flour’ denotes the powder obtained from ground wheat. The process of milling, which involves grinding wheat to produce fine powder, is responsible for this outcome. During milling, the layers surrounding the endosperm can be removed, leaving the remainder to be mixed into the powdered form.
Flour mixtures are combinations of different flour types utilized in baking and cooking to achieve specific results in terms of texture, flavor, and nutritional value. These blends are crafted by combining various flours in different proportions to meet particular recipe requirements or dietary preferences. Several common flour mixtures include:
Types of flour in cookery and their properties:
Whole Wheat Flour: Also known as graham flour, it contains all-natural wheat constituents in undiluted proportions. Due to its high fat content, it can go rancid and is not suitable for long-term storage.
All-Purpose Flour: Also called general-purpose or family flour, it is intermediate to bread and cake flour characteristics and is intended for all cooking purposes.
Instant Blending Flour: Also known as agglomerated flour, it has a granular texture, uniform particle size, and disperses quickly in cold water. It is free-flowing, dust-free, and does not require pre-sifting.
Self-Rising Flour: Contains salt and baking powder ingredients, allowing it to rise even without additional leavening agents. Suitable for making scones and plain cakes.
Composite Flour: Mixtures of two or more different flours, such as wheat flour with corn, millet, or cassava flour in specific ratios. The resulting flour, known as composite flour, can be used in baking.
It is crucial to note that the proportions and specific types of flours in mixtures may vary, and it is advisable to follow recipe instructions or consult trusted sources when working with flour blends.
Agents that raise or leaven are substances that generate gas in flour mixtures, causing them to expand and achieve a lighter, larger, softer, and porous texture after cooking. The utilization of these agents is grounded in the principle that hot air rises and expands.
Varieties Of Leavening Agents
It is essential to recognize that different recipes may necessitate specific types of leavening agents depending on the desired texture and outcome. Understanding the appropriate use and proportions of leavening agents is crucial for successful baking and achieving the desired results.
Cooking Flours Derived From Local Ingredients In Nigeria
Nigeria boasts a diverse culinary heritage, utilizing a plethora of local ingredients to create flours for cooking. These flours, integral to traditional Nigerian cuisine, provide distinct flavors and textures. Here are some examples of flours crafted from local ingredients in Nigeria:
These examples illustrate the array of flours made from local ingredients in Nigeria, each contributing unique flavors to a variety of traditional recipes.
In the United States, a diverse culinary landscape incorporates flours made from local ingredients. Here are some examples commonly used in American cooking:
These examples showcase the variety of flours made from local ingredients in the United States, reflecting regional culinary preferences.
The United Kingdom features a range of flours made from local ingredients, integral to its culinary traditions. Here are some examples:
These examples underscore the diverse flours made from local ingredients in the United Kingdom, each contributing to traditional British recipes.
Canada’s diverse agricultural landscape contributes to a variety of flours made from local ingredients. Here are some examples commonly used in Canadian cooking:
These examples highlight the locally sourced flours in Canada, contributing to the rich tapestry of Canadian cuisine.
YOUNG CHILDREN (Infants 0 – 1 year and toddlers 1-2 years)
Meal Guidelines for Children
Ensure that children’s meals are abundant in protein for muscle development, energy-rich foods for their activities, and a balanced mix of minerals and vitamins for vitality.
Include milk, meat, fish, eggs, and legumes in their diet.
Maintain regular meal times.
Opt for cooking methods that make their food easily digestible.
Avoid excessive consumption of sweets and candies to prevent tooth decay.
Proper Nutrition for Adolescents
As adolescence is a phase of rapid growth, adolescents require adequate nutrition, given their increased appetite. Their diet should be rich in protein, carbohydrates, minerals, and vitamins.
ADOLESCENT GIRLS
Increased Iron Intake for Adolescent Girls
Due to the monthly loss of iron during menstruation, adolescent girls need an elevated iron intake to prevent anemia. Insufficient iron supply in their diet can lead to this condition.
ADULTS
Balanced Diet for Adults
Having reached maturity and stopped growing, adults need food for energy and maintenance rather than growth. Their diet should be balanced and tailored to their work, age, and health. Special considerations for different adult groups include:
Manual workers: Engaged in strenuous activities such as farming or mining, they require an increased intake of energy-rich foods.
Sedentary workers: Involved in less strenuous activities like office work or selling goods, they do not need as much energy-rich food in their diet.
Dietary Recommendations for the Elderly
With reduced physical activity, the elderly require less energy, leading to a slight decrease in the quantity of energy-rich foods needed. However, their protein and vitamin needs remain unchanged. Opt for easily chewable and digestible foods for this age group.
Convenience foods refer to prepared dishes that have undergone preservation or processing to minimize the time needed for preparation and cooking. They cater to the needs of busy homemakers seeking quick meal solutions. These foods, often pre-cooked, merely require heating before serving and are typically packaged in containers such as packets, tins, or bottles. Convenience options are available for fruits, vegetables, meat, fish, and cereals.
The term “convenience” pertains to the ease of obtaining these foods. Items like flour and pickles, when in their convenience forms, are more convenient to carry home and store compared to their fresh counterparts.
Types Of Convenience Foods
Uses Of Convenience Foods
Factors To Consider When Selecting Convenience Food
Advantages Of Convenience Foods
Disadvantages Of Convenience Foods
Food commodities contain a variety of nutrients essential for the human body to perform various functions. Unfortunately, this characteristic also renders food highly susceptible to spoilage, as the same nutrients beneficial to humans are equally valuable to microorganisms that thrive on our food, consuming it and rendering the remnants unsuitable for human consumption.
Consequently, the concept of food preservation involves treating food in a manner that ensures its long-term preservation in good condition.
Motivations for food preservation:
Causes of food spoilage:
Food spoilage refers to undesirable changes in food leading to rejection and wastage. Causes include:
Classification of food spoilage:
Food can be categorized into three major groups:
Food Preservation Methods
Various techniques exist for preserving food, with the choice of method dependent on factors such as the food’s nature, required preservation duration, available facilities, and intended dish. The following are different methods of food preservation:
Drying involves reducing the water content of food, creating an unfavorable environment for enzymes and microorganisms. Examples include solar drying, oven drying, freeze drying, roller drying, vacuum drying, tunnel drying, and spray drying.
The rate of drying is influenced by the efficiency of the drying equipment, the arrangement of food on the drying material, the physical and chemical properties of the food, and the surface area exposed to dry air or heat.
This method entails keeping food at low temperatures, such as freezing below 0°C in a freezer or chilling at higher temperatures in a refrigerator. Examples include fish, meat, milk, fruits, and vegetables.
Applying heat to food destroys enzymes and microorganisms. Pasteurization is a form of high-temperature treatment, usually done at temperatures below 100°C, as seen in the case of milk.
Chemicals are added to food to inhibit enzyme action, create an unfavorable environment for microorganisms, and prevent chemical reactions. There are three types: natural chemicals, synthetic chemicals (e.g., benzoic acid, nitrites, BHT), and antibiotics (e.g., theabendazole, Nisin, tetracyclines).
Aseptically storing food in cans or bottles involves sterilizing and sealing the contents in a vacuum or inert gases. Examples include fruit juices, meat, fish, and beverages.
This method employs radioactive elements like cobalt to destroy microorganisms and food enzymes, as seen in the preservation of potatoes, yam tubers, and onions.
An ancient preservation method, fermentation involves decomposing food components to produce acid, lowering the pH and creating an unfavorable environment for microorganisms. Examples include locust beans seed, melon paste (ogiri), wines, cheese, pitto, fermented fish, fermented plantain, garri, and corn paste/dough.
Smoking, achieved by drying food over a fire or heated charcoal, produces smoke containing aldehydes and phenols with strong antibacterial effects. Examples include smoked fish and meat.
Food storage involves preserving food for a period before its eventual consumption. There are two primary aspects to consider in food storage:
The choice of storage method is influenced by several factors:
One example of a post-harvest storage method is the “Rhombus” in Nigeria. Rhombus is a large, flask-shaped or cylindrical container with a capacity of up to 2000 kilograms of grains, depending on its size. The construction materials, such as woven grass, mud, or a mixture of these, as well as the size and shape of the rhombus, depend on local culture and traditions.
Another common method, practiced in many African countries at a traditional level, is the “Granary” or “Mud Slide.” This method involves incorporating storage into the walls of a compound house using materials like clay mixed with grass, juice, or local fruit and tree bark. Granaries are raised on platforms to prevent water contact during rains. While advantageous for storing large quantities of grains and maintaining a uniform storage temperature, construction can be time-consuming, ventilation may be challenging, and proper drying of grains is essential before storage. A smaller version of the granary is the crib or barn, typically used for unshelled maize.
Cribs are constructed with sticks, raffia palm, bamboos, or similar materials found on the farm. They are simple, easy to construct, and allow for quick transfer of commodities from the field. Cribs provide good ventilation, enabling storage of grains with higher moisture content, but they are susceptible to termite damage.
“Huts” are placed on platforms built over a hearth, utilizing heat from the fireplace to reduce moisture content in grains. Smoke generated creates unfavorable conditions for insects and pests. This method is commonly used for maize yet to be dehulled.
“Jute Bags” can be used to store threshed and shelled grains inside or outside the compound house. The storage environment must be kept clean to prevent attacks from pests and rodents. Jute bags are convenient for identification and require extra effort for rat-proofing and fumigation.
An alternative is suspending grain packages on trees, promoting air circulation for proper aeration. The modern method involves storing cereals in specially constructed silos.
Storage Methods For Roots And Tubers
BARN STORAGE: Utilized for yam storage, this method involves constructing a small hut near the compound house or on the farm. Inside the hut, yams are arranged on shelves and shielded from sunlight by covering the structure with banana and plantain leaves. Barn storage allows for adequate ventilation, making it easy to observe and remove sprouts before they cause significant damage.
PIT STORAGE: Another method for yam storage is through underground pits. Large open trenches are dug on the farm, lined with plantain or banana leaves, and yams are arranged inside. The storage is then covered with leaves and a layer of soil, providing protection against very cold weather. While cost-effective, this method has limitations, including susceptibility to spoilage by soil microflora, pests, rodents, sprouting, and heat accumulation, leading to physiological and structural degradation of the yam flesh tissue.
ON-FOOT STORAGE: Cassava storage on foot is uncommon due to its short storage life of 24 to 36 hours, attributed to high moisture content and enzyme activities. This method involves leaving cassava on the plant in the farm until needed, leading to land wastage and significant physiological and microbiological deterioration, resulting in losses.
MODERN TUBER STORAGE METHODS: Contemporary approaches to storing tubers include the use of anti-sprouting chemicals like maleic hydrazide, tertreachlointrobenzene, and naphthalene acetic acid. Ionizing radiation is also employed to prevent germination.
LEGUMES: Similar to cereals, legumes are stored in jute bags after drying them to low moisture content. These bags are placed in dry, airy storage spaces and can be sprayed with insecticides and fungicides. Rat-proof storage is essential.
FRUITS AND VEGETABLES: Storage options include controlled atmosphere storage, temperature reduction, and dehydration (drying).
CEREALS: Stored in airtight containers with added dry peppers acting as fumigants to prevent weevil attacks.
LEGUMES: Stored similarly to cereals, either in airtight containers or jute bags on raised platforms to deter rat damage.
FRUITS AND VEGETABLES: Home storage options involve syruping or salting. Fruits or vegetables are washed, blanched, and preserved in sugar or salt solutions. Oranges, for example, can be stored in baskets, the lowest compartment of the refrigerator, or on trays in an open, airy space.
FISH, POULTRY, AND MEAT: Storage methods include freezing, drying, smoking, and refrigerating. Freezing involves washing, trimming, and packaging in polythene bags. Drying is applied to fish and meat, with salt added before sun-drying. Smoking imparts flavor and involves salting before exposing to heat. Refrigerating is achieved by hanging fish or meat in wire cages over a fire, where the generated heat aids in drying without spoilage.
Principle of Consumer Education:
Consumer education refers to the process of informing the public about their rights concerning food purchases. It involves empowering individuals with the necessary information to understand their consumer rights, evaluate information, and make informed choices while consuming within their means.
Aims of Consumer Education:
Importance or Advantages of Consumer Education:
Consumers have rights such as safety, education, choice, expression, satisfaction, information, redress, and legal protection, among others.
Consumer Agents:
Includes manufacturers, major distributors, sub-distributors or wholesalers, retailers, and consumers. Each plays a crucial role in the distribution network, with consumers being the final purchasers.
Government Agencies and Regulation:
Various government bodies, including Codex Alimentation Commission, Standard Organisation of Nigeria (SON), Food and Drug Administration (FDA), and National Agency for Food and Drug Administration and Control (NAFDAC), regulate food standards and enforce laws.
The Price Intelligence Agency:
Established in 1976, it serves as the research arm of the price control board, aiming to uncover malpractices by suppliers, manufacturers, and importers that endanger consumer rights. It monitors price movements, regulates prices, and checks hoarding.
Some Consumer Practices:
Budgeting involves preparing a financial plan, and a household budget specifically outlines future expenditures for a given household. The process of budgeting ensures that an individual can manage their net income effectively to avoid financial embarrassment before the next income arrives.
Budgeting entails listing all expenses and determining their costs. Effective budgeting leads to prudent management of a family’s income, while poor budgeting results in wasteful spending.
The importance of family budgeting includes making wise expenditure decisions, spending on essential needs, preventing wasteful spending, gaining insights into spending patterns, avoiding impulsive purchases, and teaching children about money management.
Factors to consider when preparing a budget include net income, family needs, planned capital expenditure, family preferences, family size, and the season of the year.
Food budgeting involves planning and allocating money for food expenses. Factors to consider in food budgeting include the allocated amount, family members’ preferences, nutritional requirements, seasonal availability of food items, substitutes, storage facilities, relative prices in different markets, and the keeping quality of foodstuffs.
Bulk purchasing, the practice of buying goods in large quantities for home storage, has advantages such as economy, time and energy savings, seasonal buying, and ensuring a constant food supply. However, disadvantages include potential financial strain, monotony in the family diet, the risk of wastage, and the possibility of poor-quality items spoiling in storage.
Wise buying practices include creating a comprehensive shopping list, sticking to the list, ensuring adequate storage, buying seasonal foods, assessing food quality and value, making bulk purchases when feasible, and comparing prices across different stores.
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