Table of Contents
Nominalization serves as an academic grammatical tool employed to transform verbs and adjectives into nouns. For instance, in the sentence “Exercising is essential for good health,” the verb “exercise” has been nominalized to function as the sentence’s subject.
Nominalizations operate akin to nouns, functioning as subjects and objects of verbs and prepositions. In linguistic terms, nominalization, or nominalisation, refers to using a word that is not a noun (such as a verb, adjective, or adverb) as a noun or as the head of a noun phrase, either with or without morphological transformation. The term can also specifically denote the process of creating a noun from another part of speech.
The formation of nominalizations involves adding a suffix to the original verb or adjective. Suffixes are meaningful segments added to the end of a word, and unlike prefixes, they can alter the part of speech of a word. For instance, the suffix “-tion” changes the verb “digest” into the noun “digestion” in the example sentence “The fiber in apples helps with digestion.”
Examples of suffixes for nominalization include:
Additionally, verbs can be formed from adjectives through the addition of specific suffixes:
Consonant sounds are sounds that are produced when there is an obstruction in the air stream. The obstruction can be partial or total. The English consonants according to Roach (2002) are sounds that obstruct the flow of air through the vocal tract.
Consonants could also be described in mainly articulating terms because they usually involve contents of speech organs in their description. These sounds are produced with the air which originates from the lungs called “Pulmonic egressive air” and passes through the vocal tract. These are twenty-four (24) consonant sounds in English language. Each has its mode of articulation.
The consonant sounds are divided into two: (i) voiced sounds (ii) Voiceless sound
Voiced sounds: these are sounds produced when the vocal cords vibrate in the course of their production, in order words, some English consonants are voiced sounds. There are fifteen (15) voiced sounds in English.
They are: /b/, /d/, /g/, /j/, /l/, /m/, /n/, /r/, /v/, /w/, /z/, /ʒ/, / j /, /d/, /dʒ/
Voiceless sounds are sounds produced when the vocal cords do not vibrate in the course of the production. Meaning, some English consonant are produced when the vocal cords do not shake while producing them. These sounds are termed “voiceless sound”. There are nine (9) voiceless sounds in English, they include: /t/, /k/, /p/, /f/, /s/, /ts/, /h/, /ʃ/, /ɵ/
/j/ – approximant or semi vowel, palatal. This sounds like vowel /i/ it occurs in words that start with letter “y” as in
ye /ji:/
yield /ji:ld/
yard /ja:d/
year /j: (r)/
It can also appear in the pronunciation of words like:
duty /dju:ti/ news /nju:z/ student /stju:dənt/
knew /nju:/ muse /mju:z/ pew /pju:/
huge /hju:dʒ/ sue /sju:/ unique /ju:nisk/
Summary writing involves condensing a substantial amount of information into a concise form by eliminating unnecessary details. It aims to create a condensed version of a given text or passage, highlighting key issues and providing a brief and focused account of a lengthy content.
To excel in summary writing, students should consider four essential aspects:
This refers to when two or more consonants occur together in a word without a vowel between them. E.g. street, slump etc. It can be found at the beginning (initial) middle (media) or end (final) of words,
In many Nigerian languages, there are no consonant clusters, but in English, there may be an initial cluster of two, three or four consonants in a word without an intervening vowel.
Two consonant sounds in initial position: examples are bride, dwell, crime, flame, spice, play, crop etc.
Crust /krᴧst/ trickle /trikl/
Stay /stei/ cradle /greit/
Scheme /ski:m/ graph /grᴂf/
Fruit /fru:t/ prince /prins/
Tree /tri:/ drop /drↄp/
Understanding a passage involves the process of reading, comprehending, and articulating the content. In any comprehension exercise, a passage is provided for students to read, and the aim is to evaluate their grasp of the given content. The exercise presents the author’s thoughts to students, requiring them to read, understand, and explain.
Helpful Tips for SSCE Comprehension
The objective of SSCE comprehension is to assess students’ comprehension of the passage. After reading the passage, one must interpret or elucidate its content in their own words to demonstrate understanding. While incorporating words from the passage is allowed, caution must be exercised to avoid indiscriminately copying portions that seem to answer the questions.
Responses should be confined to the individual’s interpretation of the passage, avoiding personal opinions on the discussed topic. Furthermore, correctness of facts or information in the passage is not the focus. Beliefs or opinions should not influence reactions or answers to the passage.
Approaching SSCE comprehension requires a deliberate step-by-step method. Many students fail comprehension exercises due to hasty attempts without taking the time to understand the passage. The suggested steps are as follows:
Answering guidelines:
The crowding of consonant sounds within the same environment before the insertion of a vowel sound in words is a consonant cluster. It is the coming together of more than one consonant sound in a word. It can be easily identified if the transcription is done. It can appear at different locations – initial, medial or final position, but the common ones are initial and final position. It can be expressed as (ccc) (vccc) that is 3 consonants may come before a vowel and up to 2 consonants may follow the vowel.
Examples
Initial (ccv) Medial (vccv) Final (vcc)
Play after shift
/plei/ /a:fta/ /sift/
Twinkle master risk
/twiokal/ /ma:ster/ /risk/
Consonant cluster words
Initial (cccv) Final (
Strength texts
/stregke/ /tesk/
Strong ask
/str3g/ /a:sk/
Initial
Skw Kw
Squander queen
Square equality
Squash quench
Squad quiet
Squalor equal
Writing serves as a mode of persuasive communication, where the author endeavors to convey a specific viewpoint to the reader. Essentially, writing is tailored for an audience, and its effectiveness is measured by how well the reader comprehends the intended message.
In literate societies, writing stands out as a crucial element, representing the use of language in its written form. The writer’s viewpoint forms the thesis, the organized synthesis of materials being the essence of proficient writing.
Qualities that define good writing have been expounded upon in various contexts, with Ebele Eko’s comprehensive list from 1987 standing out. These encompass economy, simplicity, and clarity.
Economy, in this context, signifies conciseness — the ability to express an idea with the minimum number of words, sentences, and paragraphs without sacrificing depth. While a good writing should prioritize conciseness, it must not compromise clarity and accuracy. Redundancy in words and sentences should be avoided.
Simplicity is another hallmark of effective writing, urging authors to employ straightforward language. The avoidance of rare and complex vocabularies, coupled with the use of well-structured simple sentences, contributes to a writing style that is easily comprehensible. The focus should be on delivering the message clearly and ensuring the reader’s understanding.
Clarity, a pivotal quality in good writing, demands that authors articulate their subject matter with utmost clarity, keeping the ordinary reader in mind. The writer should strive to demystify complex subjects, using language that avoids obscurity and vagueness. Even in dealing with technical and abstract topics, a proficient writer imparts information and instruction in a simple, clear, direct, and thus effective and educative manner, demonstrating a profound understanding of the subject.
For longer essays, a well-structured outline is essential. This can take the form of either a topic or sentence outline, with the former being more concise. The outline involves stages such as formulating the thesis and establishing the essay’s purpose, writing major ideas or topic sentences directly connected to the thesis, sub-dividing each topic sentence into sub-paragraphs, and completing the subdivision with clear, concise sentences. Revision should then be conducted in adherence to the outline.
Lastly, various types of essays, including narrative, descriptive, argumentative, and expository essays, offer diverse approaches to writing, each with its unique characteristics and purposes.
Stress, in linguistic terms, denotes the additional emphasis applied when articulating a specific word or syllable. Essentially, it signifies a characteristic of syllables that sets them apart, making them more noticeable than others.
Another way to conceptualize stress is as the contrast between varying degrees of breath force allocated to syllables in the English language.
Stress encompasses three distinct categories: word stress, sentence stress, and emphatic stress.
Word Stress
Word stress tends to be relatively fixed, with each word having strong/weak stresses, particularly content words such as nouns, adverbs, verbs, and adjectives in English. The stress typically commences strongly at the beginning of the stressed syllable and diminishes towards the end, often maintaining a stable pitch.
In spoken language, words vary in syllabic structure, ranging from one to multiple syllables. In words with more than one syllable, one syllable is stressed, while the others typically have a lesser degree of stress. English recognizes three degrees of stress:
Stress placement is indicated by:
(i) Placing a mark (‘) at the beginning of the stressed syllable, e.g., ‘contest con’test.
(ii) Capitalizing the letters of the stressed syllable, e.g., CONtest, contest.
Primary/Strong/Stressed Syllable
This type of syllable is pronounced with more significant effort. It is denoted by placing a stroke (‘) or a mark at the top before the syllable sound to be stressed. In this context, stressed syllables will be represented in capital letters.
Primary stress can occur on the 1st, 2nd, or 3rd syllable, as exemplified by words such as CAPtain, comMAND, democratic, RUbber, supPORT, teleVIsion, PAINter, reJOICE, inhiBItion, JOURney, meTAlLIC, acaDEmic, SUBject, humILITY, pessiMIStic, inVENT, deVOTE, and reCEDE.
Summary writing involves creating a condensed version of a given text or passage, emphasizing key points through a critical analysis. It requires understanding the author’s purpose and forming an opinion based on the socio-cultural context. For SSCE candidates, summary questions demand expressing ideas in one or two sentences. Successful summary writing entails skills such as vocabulary development, using sentences for answers, maintaining brevity, avoiding irrelevant details, employing original wording, and ensuring good grammar and expression. Preambles should seamlessly transition into sentences in the response.
An adjective is a word that qualifies or modifies nouns and pronouns, typically providing additional information about attributes such as quality, colour, or quantity. These words are positioned close to the nouns they modify compared to other modifying elements.
There are two primary uses for adjectives: attributive use and predicative use.
Adjectives can be categorized into ten types:
Adjective of Quality: Describes the quality of a person or thing, such as wealthy, regional, industrial, fundamental, elementary, or primary.
Example: The Yoruba is a regional language, and he is a wealthy person.
Adjective of Quantity: Describes the quantity of things, including words like little, much, enough, no, any, whole, some, all, great, half, and sufficient.
Example: There is a little milk in the jug, and my father earned enough money.
Adjective of Number: Describes the number of things or persons, including fine, few, no, many, all, some, most, several, first, any, and one.
Example: She wrote six papers for her B.A, and all students passed in the exam.
Demonstrative Adjective: Points out the person or thing being referred to, including this, that, these, and those.
Example: This book is very interesting, and those flowers are lovely.
Distributive Adjective: Refers to each and every person or thing separately, including each, every, either, neither, any, none, and both.
Example: Each boy was awarded a diploma, and neither party has a majority in the recent elections.
Interrogative Adjective: Used to question, including what, which, and whose.
Example: What advice shall I give you? Which place do you wish to visit?
Possessive Adjective: Describes ownership or possession, including my, your, our, his, her, its, and their.
Example: Your father is a doctor, and our country is Nigeria.
Moving on to adverbs:
An adverb modifies the meaning of a verb, adjective, or another adverb.
Examples include:
Adverbs are categorized into eight types based on their use:
Adverb of Manner: Describes how an action is done, including quickly, bravely, happily, hard, and well.
Example: They lived happily, and Bukola walked gracefully.
Adverb of Place: Indicates where an action is done, including here, there, up, down, near, and everywhere.
Example: I went there, and she stood near the gate.
Adverb of Time: Specifies when an action is done, including now, then, today, tomorrow, and daily.
Example: My father is not at home now, and she will come here soon.
Adverb of Frequency: Describes how often an action is done, including once, twice, often, and never.
Example: They talked to each other again, and we visited Jos twice.
Adverb of Certainty: Shows the definiteness of an action, including surely, certainly, and obviously.
Example: Surely, she loves me, and Janet is obviously very clean.
Structure: Complex Sentence Analysis
A complex sentence is formed by combining a main clause with one or more subordinate clauses.
For example:
The analysis of a complex sentence involves the following steps:
Examples:
In the analysis of complex sentences, various components are identified and categorized for a better understanding of sentence structure. Let’s break down the analysis for each clause:
In this detailed breakdown, each element of the clauses is examined, including the kind of clause, connective, subject word with attribute, verb, object with attribute, complement, and adverbial qualification where applicable.
Note: The table provides a breakdown of the sentence structure, identifying the kind of clause, connectives, subjects, verbs, objects, complements, and adverbial qualifications for each clause.
A syllable constitutes a unit of sound formed by a central sonority peak, typically a vowel, surrounded by consonants. Additionally, a syllable represents the portion of a word spoken in one breath or pulse, being the smallest speech unit pronounced at once. Commonly, it includes one vowel and accompanying consonants. For instance, the word ‘baby’ comprises two syllables, each containing a consonant and a vowel (/beil/ and /bi/).
Concerning words and syllables, words are categorized based on the number of syllables they contain—whether monosyllabic (one syllable), disyllabic (two syllables), or polysyllabic (more than two syllables).
Monosyllabic Words: These consist of a single syllable, with stress usually applied when the word is in isolation. Examples include prepositions (e.g., on, in, of), conjunctions (e.g., and, but), pronouns (e.g., she, he, you), and other monosyllabic words like man, go, and book.
Disyllabic Words: Comprising two syllables, these words exhibit stress on either the first or second syllable, depending on the word’s state and class. Nouns often receive stress on the first syllable, while verbs place stress on the second. Examples include:
Additionally, adjectives are typically stressed on the first syllable, whereas verbs receive stress on the second syllable. Examples include:
Polysyllabic Words: These encompass words with more than two syllables, and stress placement can vary based on the word class. Examples include examination, impossible, and generation.
Activity:
Monosyllabic Words:
Disyllabic Words:
Polysyllabic Words:
When expressing ideas, information, findings, or opinions on paper for future reference, the writer must exercise utmost care and caution. It is crucial to ensure that the intended message is effectively communicated, taking into consideration the audience’s perspective.
Stages in the creative writing process:
A letter constitutes a written communication dispatched via post or messenger, and the individuals involved may reside in the same locality, city, country, or even different countries.
There are two primary types of letters:
Formal Letter:
This category encompasses official communication, typically between individuals who may not be acquainted and may have never met. The language and tone employed in formal letters are formal and official. Examples include letters of employment or communication from a community to their local government chairman.
Features of Formal Letter:
When crafting a formal letter, the following elements need consideration:
4 Mohammed Way,
P.O Box 2641,
Benin City,
Edo State.
14th June, 2014
The Personal Manager,
Sumal Food Limited,
14 Oluyole Industrial Estate,
Ring Road,
Ibadan,
Oyo State.
Phrasal verbs are formed by combining a verb with other particles such as adverbs and prepositions.
Here are some examples of phrasal verbs along with their meanings:
Phrasal verbs are linguistic constructs formed by combining a verb with adverbs or prepositions, and they often convey nuanced meanings. Here are some examples:
Account for: To provide a satisfactory reason or explanation.
Example: You must account for your excessive spending this month.
Back out: To withdraw from a commitment or refuse to proceed.
Example: He initially agreed to help, but he backed out at the last minute.
Carry out: To perform, obey, or fulfill a task or order.
Example: It is crucial to carry out the instructions precisely to ensure success.
Catch up with: To overtake or reach the same level as someone or something.
Example: The student worked hard to catch up with the rest of the class after falling behind.
Clean up: To tidy or remove a mess or clutter.
Example: Please clean up the kitchen after cooking.
Die down: To become gradually calmer and eventually disappear, as in the case of riots or fires.
Example: The protests gradually died down as the authorities addressed the issues.
Deal with: To tackle or handle a person, situation, or problem.
Example: She knew how to deal with difficult customers effectively.
Get back: To recover or reach one’s home.
Example: After a long journey, it’s good to finally get back home.
Hand over: To surrender or transfer authority, control, or possession.
Example: The outgoing president will hand over power to the newly elected leader.
Give away: To give something as a gift or for free.
Example: They decided to give away their old furniture to charity.
Hold up: To stop or delay something.
Example: The traffic accident held up the flow of vehicles for hours.
Jump up: To accept an opportunity or invitation eagerly.
Example: When offered the promotion, she jumped up at the chance.
Pull off: To succeed or accomplish a challenging task.
Example: Against all odds, they managed to pull off the ambitious project.
Move in: To relocate or change one’s residence from one flat or place to another.
Example: They decided to move in together after getting married.
Take after: To resemble or inherit traits from someone, usually a family member.
Example: The child takes after his father in terms of artistic talent.
These phrasal verbs add depth and specificity to the English language, allowing for more nuanced and precise expression.
Punctuation marks are symbols incorporated into a written piece to delineate words or groups of words, contributing to the effective presentation of ideas.
Comma ( , )
The comma is employed for various purposes:
Example: She provided us with two pencils, four rulers, and pens.
Example: Upon seeing her son, she felt relieved.
Example: Mr. Kargbo, who is a lawyer, is aware of our situation.
Example: They have been complaining about their flight for five years, but unfortunately, the management has not paid any attention.
Example: She said, “Run as fast as you can.”
Semi – Colon ( ; )
A semicolon is used for:
Example: She looks awful; she needs a shower.
Example: He made up his mind to take the bull by the horns; he would purge the country, no matter the cost.
Question Mark ( ? )
A question mark is utilized to:
Example: Have you had lunch?
Example: He was in Toronto?
Example: Bisi left late, didn’t she?
Colon ( : )
A colon is employed:
Example: These are the items they are asking for: a bicycle, two goats, and four gallons of palm oil.
Example: He could not leave her despite her misbehavior: he lacked the courage.
In the realm of vocabulary development, words associated with the press include:
Tabloid – A newspaper with small pages, usually half the size of those in larger papers.
Verbatim – A report written word for word, exactly as spoken or written.
Journalism – The work of collecting and writing news stories for newspapers, magazines, and radio.
Press man – A journalist.
Column – One of the vertical sections into which the printed page of a book, newspaper, etc., is divided.
Opinion poll – The process of questioning people who are representative of a large group to gather information about general opinion.
Newsreel – A short film of news that was shown in the past in cinemas/movie theaters.
Commentator – An expert on a particular subject who talks or writes about it on television, reporting on a specific area of news.
Press conference – A meeting at which somebody talks to a group of journalists to answer their questions or make an official statement.
Editorial – Connected with the task of preparing something, such as a newspaper or a book.
Headline – The title of a newspaper or article printed in large letters, especially at the top.
Byline – A line at the beginning or end of a piece of writing in a newspaper or magazine that gives the writer’s name.
Typesetter – A person, machine, or company that prepares a book, etc., for printing.
Formal letters, designated for offices rather than individuals, maintain an impersonal tone. They should avoid personal greetings and discussions of private matters. These letters encompass various purposes such as:
The primary focus is on complaint letters, which articulate dissatisfaction and the writer’s desire to express their concerns. The opening paragraph often includes expressions like “I regret to inform you that” or “I feel sad to inform you that.” The closing paragraph typically ends with expressions such as “I look forward to an early reply” or “I expect urgent action from you.”
Maintaining a serious yet non-rude tone is crucial in complaint letters. Strong requests are indicated using “shall” and “will,” as opposed to the more polite “should” and “would.” Striking a balance is essential, as being too rude may offend the recipient, while excessive politeness might not be taken seriously.
Given topics should dictate the letter’s content, avoiding irrelevant details to ensure clarity and conciseness. An example question prompts the writer to compose a complaint letter to the General Manager of a bookshop regarding shortcomings in a nearby branch.
The provided guidelines outline the format for formal letters, starting with the sender’s address, date, recipient’s address, salutation, heading, body containing the complaints, and concluding with a formal closing.
Additionally, sentence types based on function are categorized into declarative, interrogative, imperative, and exclamatory. Each serves a distinct purpose in communication.
It is crucial to recognize that, while reading, the writer often assumes that the reader possesses some knowledge about the subject matter. The writer anticipates that you will be able to piece together the information provided and infer conclusions. Your responsibility is to read for implied meanings, and you can achieve this by:
Another facet of the Test of Orals that requires thorough understanding from students is the concept of rhyme. Rhyming takes place when words share the same ending sound. To elaborate further, two words rhyme when they exhibit:
Example: go – know, do – sue, buy – thigh
Example: worst – burst, count – amount, just – dust
Example: half – laugh, receive – deceive
Moving on to the topic of Pronoun type structure, we previously examined the use of relative pronouns (who, whom, which, whose, etc.). This time, our focus is on other pronoun types: Personal, demonstrative, interrogative, and possessive.
Personal Pronouns:
These words substitute for any of the three persons in the English language:
Note that personal pronouns come in singular and plural forms and can be used in both nominative (subjective) and accusative (objective) cases.
In examining personal pronouns, we observe their variations in both singular and plural forms, encompassing distinct cases such as the subjective (used as the subject in a sentence) and the objective (used as the object in a sentence). These variations are crucial in conveying different nuances and roles within sentences. Let’s delve into the details:
First Person:
Subjective (Singular):* “I” is employed when referring to oneself as the person being addressed.
Example: “I am going to the store.”
Objective (Singular): “Me” is used as the object in a sentence when referring to oneself.
Example: “John saw me at the party.”
Subjective (Plural): “We” is the plural form used when addressing a group that includes the speaker.
Example: “We are working on a project together.”
Objective (Plural): “Us” is utilized as the object when referring to a group that includes the speaker.
Example: “They invited us to join their team.”
Second Person:
Subjective (Singular and Plural): “You” serves as both the singular and plural form, addressing the person or persons being spoken to.
Example: “You are my best friend.”
Objective (Singular and Plural): “You” remains consistent in both singular and plural, representing the object in a sentence.
Example: “I appreciate you helping me.”
Third Person:
Subjective (Singular): “He,” “She,” and “It” are employed when referring to a singular person or thing being spoken about.
Examples: “He is my brother,” “She is a doctor,” “It is a beautiful day.”
Objective (Singular): “Him,” “Her,” and “It” are used as the object in a sentence, denoting the singular person or thing.
Examples: “John saw him at the park,” “I admire her talent,” “Please pass it to me.”
Subjective (Plural): “They” is utilized when referring to a plural group or things being spoken about.
Example: “They are my classmates.”
Objective (Plural): “Them” is the plural form, representing the object in a sentence when referring to a group.
Example: “I called them to discuss the project.”
Understanding the distinctions between these pronouns is essential for effective communication and grammatical accuracy in constructing sentences.
Demonstrative Pronouns:
These pronouns indicate specific persons, places, or things. The demonstrative pronouns in English are: this, these, that, those. “This” and “that” are singular, while “these” and “those” are plural.
Examples:
Interrogative Pronouns:
Interrogative pronouns are used in posing questions.
Examples:
Note: The interrogative pronoun ‘which’ is employed when making a selection from a known set of possibilities or when the choice is limited to a specific number.
Possessive Pronouns:
These pronouns indicate ownership, such as “The house is mine.” Other examples include his, ours, yours, theirs.
It is crucial for students to distinguish between possessive pronouns and possessive adjectives.
In understanding possessive pronouns, it is crucial to recognize their forms in both singular and plural contexts without resorting to a table:
First Person:
Possessive Adjective: my
Example: This is my book.
-Possessive Pronoun: mine
Example: The book is mine.
Second Person:
Possessive Adjective: your
Example: Is this your pen?
Possessive Pronoun: yours
Example: Yes, the pen is yours.
Third Person:
Singular:
Possessive Adjective: his, her, its
Examples:
Possessive Pronoun: his, hers, its
Examples:
Plural:
Possessive Adjective: our, your, their
Examples:
,kkklPossessive Pronoun: ours, yours, theirs
Examples:
It’s important to note that possessive pronouns in the third person singular (his, hers, its) do not change form between singular and plural, unlike possessive adjectives. Additionally, there is no possessive pronoun for the third person singular neuter gender in the plural form.
Note: An apostrophe cannot be used with possessive pronouns (e.g., This pencil is yours, not This pencil is your’s; This school is theirs, not This school is their’s).
Phrasal verbs consist of verbs combined with prepositions or adverbs, known as particles. The meanings of these combinations cannot be determined in isolation; instead, they must be understood within the context of the entire phrase. These meanings can range from being evident to obscure. When the meaning is unclear, it becomes idiomatic, whereas if the meaning is clear, it is non-idiomatic. Some phrasal verbs convey a single meaning, while others may have multiple meanings.
Phrasal Verbs with Clear Meaning:
Example 1: They waited for him to descend.
Example 2: They were seated.
Phrasal Verbs with Unclear Meaning:
Example 1: The convict broke down (lost control of his emotions).
Example 2: Did you catch on (understand)?
Phrasal Verbs with the Same Meaning:
Example: After completing his prison term, he kept out of trouble.
Kept away from trouble.
Stayed away from trouble.
Phrasal Verbs with Different Meanings:
Example 1: During the Christmas party, I fell in with (encountered by chance) an old friend.
Example 2: I am ready to fall in with (agree to) anything you propose.
It’s important to note that a single verb can combine with different particles, leading to a change in the meaning of each phrasal verb as the particle changes.
Example:
An article serves as a written piece addressing a topic of public interest, intended for publication in magazines or newspapers. These articles can encompass narrative, descriptive, argumentative, or expository themes. The choice of tone and language hinges on the target audience, whether it be expansive or limited. Despite the potential audience variations, the article should possess a broad appeal capable of resonating with individuals from diverse biological, psychological, and social backgrounds simultaneously.
Essentials of effective article writing include crafting an engaging title, a succinct introductory paragraph, and tailoring the tone and language to the specified audience. The body of the article should adhere to a well-organized structure, maintaining clarity, originality, imagination, unity, precision, and coherence. In the case of controversial topics, referencing previous contributions on the subject is recommended. The inclusion of the author’s full name and address, or class if for a school magazine, concludes the article.
For example, if tasked with composing an article for a school magazine on “Examination Malpractices in Public Examinations and Their Remedies,” an outline with sections detailing the definition of malpractice, current efforts to combat it, and proposed solutions could be employed.
Another aspect to consider in effective writing is understanding the active and passive structures. Active voice emphasizes the doer of an action, while passive voice shifts focus to the sufferer of the action. Not all sentences can be converted to passive, and key considerations include the transitivity of verbs, tense alignment, and the introduction of the preposition ‘by’ in passive constructions.
Furthermore, vocabulary development is crucial, as illustrated in the exploration of words associated with cultural entertainment in Italy. Italy, hosting events of international resonance throughout the year, offers a rich cultural tapestry, including art exhibitions, music festivals, operatic seasons, literary festivals, carnivals, and various historical and religious representations. Italy’s diverse landscapes and traditions serve as natural film sets, contributing to its allure as a hub of art, culture, and natural beauty.
In essence, effective article writing involves tailoring content to the audience, maintaining structural coherence, understanding grammatical nuances, and enriching vocabulary for a compelling narrative.
The emphasis here lies in understanding how uncountable nouns can be rendered countable. Countable nouns, which have both singular and plural forms, are those that can be enumerated.
For instance: girl – girls, box – boxes, man – men, ox – oxen.
In contrast, uncountable nouns lack a plural form as they cannot be quantified. Examples include sand, rice, sugar, water, soup, advice, information, furniture, equipment, blood, and knowledge.
Nevertheless, uncountable nouns can be converted into countable ones through various methods:
Partitives, indicating a part or quantity, precede both count and noncount nouns.
Examples: a piece/chunk of meat, a bottle of wine, a cube/pack of sugar, a plate/pot of soup, a tin of milk, a fit of anger, a glass/cup of water, a drop/pint of blood, a loaf of bread, a bar of chocolate, a piece of furniture, a clove of garlic.
Similar to partitives, quantifiers denote amount or quantity and can be applied to both countable and uncountable nouns.
Examples: Step out for some fresh air, Did you bring any luggage to the hotel?, Add a little flour to the dough, We had a lot of fun on our trip.
The indefinite article can transform an uncountable noun into a countable one, suggesting a kind of.
Examples: a bread, a clay, a wine, a behavior.
Singular and plural forms are related in meaning.
Examples:
The passage also underscores the importance of food for a swift recovery from illness and advocates for acquiring knowledge about nutritional values and meal preparation.
Furthermore, there is a section on Vocabulary Development, highlighting commonly misspelled words.
Finally, the document touches upon writing a semi-formal letter, delineating its features and structure, emphasizing a respectful tone and discouraging the use of colloquial expressions or slang.
Title: Understanding Conditional Sentences and Complex Structures
Introduction:
Conditional sentences are characterized by at least two clauses, with one commencing with “if” or “unless,” signifying a condition. The structure of such sentences allows for flexibility, enabling variations in the arrangement of clauses.
Conditional Sentences:
A conditional sentence typically comprises an “if clause” (subordinate) and a result clause (main). For instance, “If inflation is high, the value of life insurance policies goes down.” The sentence structure allows for alteration, such as, “The value of life insurance policies goes down if inflation is high.”
Types of Conditional Sentences:
Present simple tense may be used in both the if clause and the result clause.
Example: “If you have a life insurance policy, your family has financial protection.”
Past tense (subjunctive) is employed in the if-clause, and “would” is used in the result clause.
Example: “If you left the keys in the car and if it were stolen, the insurance company would probably not pay you.”
Used to discuss unrealized events, employing past perfect tense in the if-clause and “would have” plus a past participle in the result clause.
Example: “If I had left the keys in the car, the insurance company would not have paid up.”
Complex Sentences:
A complex sentence consists of one main clause and one or more subordinate clauses, denoted as (M1, S1 or more). While clauses can be arranged in various ways, it is advisable to place the dependent clause before the main clause for sentence vigor. All conditional clauses fall under the category of complex sentences.
Examples:
Publishing involves the profession or business of creating and printing books, magazines, CD-ROMs, etc. and making them available to the public. For instance, Evans Brothers is a well-regarded publishing company. A manuscript refers to a copy of a book or piece of music before it undergoes printing, or it can denote a very old handwritten book or document. An example would be an author selling their manuscript to a publishing outfit. A reader, within a publishing house, evaluates a manuscript to determine its appeal to the public.
An author is a person who writes books, such as one’s favourite author. Edition pertains to the form or number of copies of a book, newspaper, or magazine. Sally Wehmeier, for instance, is the chief editor of the seventh edition of the Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary.
A revised edition is a published book where the author has added new ideas or removed obsolete concepts, as seen in the upcoming revised edition of the textbook. The choice between a hardback or paperback impacts the cost of a book, as one may have a hard outer covering, while the other has a light outer covering. A review involves an examination of something to make changes if necessary, such as a textbook scheduled for review.
Imprint, technically, refers to the name of the publisher of a book, typically printed below the title on the first page. An example would be when the publisher’s imprint is too vague. Copyright is a statement indicating the person holding publication rights, usually prohibiting unauthorized duplication, with ongoing debates regarding whether photocopying a book infringes on copyright laws.
This is a written composition intended for a live audience, necessitating careful consideration of language tailored to the audience’s interests. Speeches are expected to be highly informative, educational, and entertaining.
There are three main types of speeches:
Key Features:
Title: Farewell Speech by Mr. James Bode, Vice Principal of Glory Shower School, at the Send-Off Ceremony for Dean Mrs. Caroline Barry in the Conference Hall on June 20, 2020, at 10:00 AM.
The dignitaries present are acknowledged in order of hierarchy/status/prominence, including the Proprietor, Principal, PTA Chairman, Parents, Staff Members, Students, Ladies, and Gentlemen.
Express gratitude for the opportunity to address the gathering.
Present points in a logical sequence.
Share impressions of the event or person being honored.
Discuss the impact on the community/society.
Encourage the audience to take positive actions.
Extend good wishes to everyone on their respective journeys.
Employ formal language with occasional humor.
Identification and Illustrations:
In this instructional session, we will elucidate the morphophonemic method for identifying stressed syllables. Stress placement is ascertained based on the occurrence and arrangement of vowels (short, long, diphthongs) and consonants within syllables.
Guidelines:
(2) Stress the second syllable if it contains a long vowel or diphthong and concludes with more than one consonant. Examples: withDRAW, inVITE, conTACT, aLIVE.
(3) For three-syllable verbs,
Stress the first syllable if the second syllable contains a short vowel; otherwise, stress the second. Examples: MOney, PROduct, LArynx, eSTATE, balLOON, deSIGN.
(2) Three-syllable nouns:
Voice refers to whether the individual performing an action appears before or after the action (verb) in a sentence. When the doer precedes the action (verb), the sentence is in the active form, as exemplified by:
“Dairo killed a snake.” (Active voice)
Conversely, when the order of the two nouns is reversed in the above sentence, we categorize it as being in the passive form.
“A snake was killed by Dairo.” (Passive voice)
Active Voice Passive Voice
Bola prepared dinner. Dinner was prepared by Bola.
Shade wrote a letter. A letter was written by Shade.
Daddy is building a house. A house is being built by Daddy.
Sola makes beads. Beads are made by Sola.
John will kick the ball. The ball will be kicked by John.
Rules
There is an exchange of positions between the subject and the object.
The tense of both voices (active and passive) must be the same.
The word ‘by’ is introduced in the passive voice.
A form of the verb ‘BE’ is also introduced in the passive voice.
A prefix serves as a set of letters or syllables that is affixed to the front of a root word, thereby transforming it into a new word with an altered meaning. It acts as a linguistic element contributing to the modification or clarification of the base word.
Examples of prefixes and their corresponding meanings, along with derived words, include:
These examples illustrate how the addition of specific prefixes imparts nuanced meanings to the root words, allowing for a diverse and expansive vocabulary in the English language.
Article Structure: Definition, Features, Sample Question, and Outline
An article is a form of written expression intended for publication in school magazines, newspapers, or journals.
Essential Components
Outline: Women in Politics
Topic/Heading: Women’s Role in Politics
Introduction: Men have historically dominated the political arena.
Effects of Men’s Domination:
Explore the repercussions of male dominance.
The Need for Women’s Involvement:
Conclusion: Challenge the audience to reconsider and advocate for gender inclusivity in politics.
A prepositional phrase is a collection of words that commences with a preposition and concludes with a noun, pronoun, or noun phrase, referred to as its complement.
Examples:
Preposition + Noun
Preposition + Pronoun
Preposition + Noun Phrase
Other Varieties:
A prepositional phrase can function as a modifier (an adjective), an adverb, or a complement of a verb or adjective.
Modifier (adjective):
The man with a hat is our teacher. (modifies the noun “man”)
Modifier (adverb):
The police caught the thief in the garden. (modifies the verb “caught”)
Complement of a verb:
We believe in what you said. (Complement of the verb “believe”)
Complement of an adjective:
We are sure of his chances. (complements “sure”)
A dictionary is a reference book that presents a collection of words from a language in alphabetical order, providing explanations of their meanings or offering equivalent words in a foreign language, such as a French-English dictionary.
The typical structure of a standard dictionary includes the following components:
The dictionary also utilizes numbering (e.g., 1, 2, 3) to represent different levels of meaning associated with a word. For instance, the word “difficult” can mean:
Additionally, the dictionary may specify the regional variation of English (e.g., British English, North American English, or New Zealand English) alongside a word.
Other information used to elucidate a word includes:
Concord refers to the alignment between the subject and the verb in a sentence.
Guidelines
My friend and my brother have arrived.
In this lesson, we’ll delve into the morphophonemic approach to identify stressed syllables. Stress placement is determined by the occurrence and arrangement of vowels (short, long, diphthongs) and consonants in syllables.
Guidelines:
(2) Stress the second syllable if it contains a long vowel or diphthong and ends with more than one consonant (e.g., “withDRAW,” “inVITE,” “conTACT,” “aLIVE”).
(3) For three-syllable verbs, stress the last syllable if it contains a long vowel, diphthong, or more than one consonant. If the last syllable contains a short vowel or not more than one consonant, stress the second syllable (e.g., “resuRRECT,” “enterTAIN,” “enCOUNTER,” “deTERmine”).
(2) For three-syllable nouns, if the last syllable contains a short vowel or the diphthong /әu/, it receives no stress. If the middle syllable contains a long vowel or diphthong or ends with more than one consonant, stress that middle syllable (e.g., “poTAto,” “diSASter,” “boNANza,” “syNOPsis,” “apPOINTment”). If the last syllable contains a short vowel and not more than one consonant, stress the first syllable (e.g., “QUANtity,” “EXercise,” “CUStody,” “SCHOlarship,” “EMperor,” “CInema”).
A narrative is a portrayal of events and characters fabricated by a writer or speaker for the purpose of advocating or entertaining. Examples encompass various genres such as love stories, detective tales, adventures, and science fiction narratives, among others.
WAEC and NECO assess two types of story writing:
Fundamental Features:
Sample Question: Write a story illustrating the saying, “The early bird catches the worm.”
Paragraph 1 – Introduction: Introduce the protagonist, detailing their birth, background, and community assignment.
Paragraph 2 – Religious Life: Explore the protagonist’s religious aspects.
Paragraph 3 – Library Enthusiasm: Despite mockery, the protagonist is consistently the first to access the library after UNESCO delivers new books, borrowing the most relevant ones.
Paragraph 4 – Project Topics: The acquired books facilitate the protagonist’s ease in handling assigned project topics.
Paragraph 5 – Academic Success: Due to his diligence, the protagonist achieves a first-class degree in computer science, attracting the attention of a telecommunications company during recruitment.
Paragraph 6 – Conclusion: Reflect on the protagonist’s journey, concluding with his current position as the Managing Director of Bright Telecom Company.
An adjectival clause serves the purpose of an adjective by providing qualifications to a noun or its equivalents. It commences with a relative pronoun such as who, which, that, whose, where, whom, etc., earning the label of a (defining) relative clause. This type of clause remains unseparated by a comma from the noun it describes. However, if the clause is set off by a comma from the noun it modifies, it does not function as a relative clause.
For instance:
Furthermore:
Manipulating the news involves presenting information with a biased or prejudiced slant to deceive the public censor, gaining approval for publication or broadcasting prior to its release.
Restrict – Limit
Director – An individual overseeing the execution of a movie’s performance
Producer – Someone with overall control, particularly over the financial aspects, of a play, film, or broadcast, but not involved in directing actors.
Box-office – The location where seats in a theater or hall are reserved and tickets are purchased
Rehearse – To study and practice something in preparation for a later performance
Star – A renowned or highly skilled performer
Audience – The individuals observing or listening to a performance
Curtain call – The recognition given by the audience to an actor or actress at the conclusion of a play through applause.
The vowel sound /I:/ is pronounced as a long sound, while the /I/ sound is short. The contrast between them is illustrated through the following word pairs.
/I:/ /I/
eat it
beat bit
seat sit
heel hill
feel fill
seen sin
leave live
wean win
meal mill
least list
The essay titled “Expository: Raising a Total Child” explores various aspects of child development, encompassing physical, intellectual, emotional, psychological, and social dimensions.
The outline delves into factors influencing child development before and after birth, such as maternal nutrition, care, and environmental factors. It discusses the appropriate exposure for children and examines the formation of their personalities and attitudes.
The roles of parents in child-rearing, as well as the responsibilities of schools and others, are explored with examples from society. The essay also addresses the negative effects of poor child upbringing, emphasizing the importance of fostering a well-rounded child.
The section on adverbs explains that adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs. Adverbs often answer questions related to when, where, why, how, to what extent, how often, or under what conditions an action occurs. Most adverbs are formed by adding ‘-ly’ to adjectives, though some may not be easily recognized as adverbs in certain contexts. The functions of adverbs are outlined, including their role in modifying verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs. Different types of adverbs are identified based on the questions they answer, such as adverbs of manner, time, reason, place, frequency, degree, and condition.
Room service allows guests to order food or drinks and have them delivered to their rooms. Bars in hotels are places where guests can enjoy drinks. A brochure is a small piece of paper providing information about local attractions.
A continental breakfast is a light morning meal served in a common area, such as a dining room. Buffets offer a variety of foods, allowing guests to serve themselves. Spas, for relaxation, may offer services like massages or saunas.
The reception, also known as the front desk, greets guests and assigns rooms. Banquet or meeting rooms are large spaces used for events like conferences or weddings. Making a reservation involves booking a hotel room, while checking in is the process of securing a room. Cuisine refers to a distinctive style of preparing food, often associated with a specific place, like French cuisine. Turndown service involves housekeepers remaking beds after use.
The summary discusses prepositional phrases, which start with a preposition and end with a noun, pronoun, or noun phrase. Examples include “in trouble,” “trust in me,” and “at the farm.” Prepositional phrases can also include wh clauses (e.g., “surprised at what she told his friend”) and ing clauses (e.g., “needs a truck for transporting gravel”).
Prepositional phrases serve as modifiers (adjective or adverb) or complements of a verb or adjective. Examples include “The man with the hat” (modifying the noun “man”) and “The police caught the thief in the garden” (modifying the verb “caught”). Complements of a verb example is “We believe in what you said,” and a complement of an adjective example is “We are sure of his chances.”
An idiom is a combination of words or a phrase whose meaning cannot be inferred from the literal interpretation of its individual components. Here are some examples of idiomatic expressions:
This pertains to the process of modifying words by adding prefixes, suffixes, and infixes, resulting in the creation of new words, meanings, and word classes.
Examples (Verbs)
Verbs + “ment”:
Enslavement, achievement
Management, movement
Development
Verbs + “ion”:
Action
Conclusion
Decision
Verbs + “ation”:
Organize = organization
Document = documentation
Mobilize = mobilization
Verb + “age”:
Marry = marriage
Drain = drainage
Carry = carriage
Verb + “ist”:
Type = typist
Separate = separatist
Verb + “er / or”:
Teach = teacher
Debate = debater
Direct = director
Oppress = oppressor
Verb + “ee”:
Amputate = amputee
Employ = employee
Invite = invitee
Verbs + “ve, ant, ing”:
Correct = corrective
Cure = curative
Attend = attendant
Appeal = appellant
Clone = cloning
House = housing
Verbs + “ry, ery/ary”:
Brew = brewery
Refine = refinery
Cook = cookery
Dispense = dispensary
Examples (Adjectives)
Adjectives + “ness”:
Useful = usefulness
Useless = uselessness
Dry = dryness
Conscious = consciousness
Responsive = responsible
Sad = sadness
Ill = illness
Adjective + “ity, hood, ance/ ence”:
Ethnic – ethnicity
Public – publicity
False – falsehood
Important = importance
Different = difference
Adjectives + “ancy, / ency”:
Flippant – flippancy
Efficient – efficiency
Ocean liner: A ship used for conveying passengers and some cargo across the ocean.
Berth: A place for a ship to anchor.
Rudder: A wooden or metal blade at the back of a ship that swings to control its direction.
Cargo: Goods carried by ship or a place/vehicle.
Speedometer: An instrument in a vehicle for indicating its speed.
Chauffeur: A person employed to drive someone’s car.
Commuter: A person who makes a regular journey of some distance.
Freightliner/liner train: A train carrying a large amount of goods in special containers.
Derail: To cause a train to run off the rails/railway lines.
Terminus: The last stop on a railway.
Air liner: A large passenger aircraft.
Fuselage: The main body of an aircraft.
Cockpit: The part of a plane or racing car where the pilot and co-pilot sit.
Tarmac/runway: A surface for landing or taking off.
Terminal: A bus station for passengers going to or arriving from an airport.
Hangar: A large building (shed) where planes are kept.
A clause is a group of words containing a subject and a finite verb, forming part of a sentence, as exemplified by “The referee blew his whistle, and the match stopped.” Clauses are categorized into two types: Independent and Dependent.
Independent Clauses, also known as Insubordinate Clauses, express complete thoughts and can stand alone as sentences. For instance, “My English teacher is a kind man” and “The maid cooked dinner.”
On the other hand, Dependent Clauses, or Subordinate Clauses, lack a complete thought and rely on an independent clause for meaning. Examples include “while the boy was sleeping” and “the goat which ate our yam.” Despite not expressing a complete thought, subordinate clauses have a subject and predicate.
There are three types of subordinate clauses: Noun, Adjectival, and Adverbial.
In speech practice, stress on words with five or six syllables ending in –“ion” or –“ity” is placed on the second and third syllables from the back, respectively.
Examples of words ending in:
“ion”
adminSTRAtion
consideRAtion
communiCAtion
personifiCAtion
intensifiCAtion
Example of words ending in:
“ity”
authenTIcity
conducTIvity
possiBIlity
impossibility
responsibility