Introduction To Geography: Meaning, Scope And Value Meaning Of Geography
The term “Geography” originates from the Greek words ‘Geo,’ meaning earth, and ‘graph,’ meaning description. Thus, Geography can be defined as the depiction or portrayal of the earth. However, it extends beyond merely describing the Earth’s surface and features; it delves into the intricate connections between humanity and its environment. Consequently, Geography can also be characterized as the examination of people, their activities, locations, and physical elements within the Earth.
Geography encompasses the study of diverse human populations in various Earth locations, exploring activities such as agriculture, mining, trade, fishing, manufacturing, and construction. It also delves into the global diversity of people, including their occupations, cultures, clothing, and religions. Additionally, Geography involves the scrutiny of physical elements within the Earth, such as rocks, mountains, plains, valleys, rivers, oceans, weather, rainfall, soils, and vegetation.
Scope Of Geography
Geography, classified as a social science, focuses on investigating man, his activities, and his surroundings. Its relevance extends into various disciplines like Economics, Agricultural Science, Government, and History. Geography concerns itself with the examination of the Earth’s size, shape, movement, landmasses, bodies of water, climate, vegetation, and events worldwide. Furthermore, it addresses the spatial distribution of animal and natural resources, as well as human activities.
Value Of Geography
The significance of geography lies in several aspects:
Enhanced Environmental Understanding: Geography provides individuals with a better comprehension of their surroundings.
Critical Problem Exploration: Geography raises crucial issues, problems, and solutions essential to modern society.
Global Knowledge: It furnishes knowledge about the world, enabling the study of the lifestyles of people in various parts of the globe.
Versatility in Societal Roles: A well-trained geographer can play pivotal roles in politics and the socio-economic sector, applying geographical knowledge to areas like urban, economic, rural, or regional planning.
Understanding Physical Surroundings: It enables a better comprehension of physical elements like vegetation, climate, rivers, soil, oceans, and mountains.
Career Guidance: Geography assists in making informed career choices, providing opportunities for livelihoods.
The Solar System
The solar system describes the arrangement of Earth and other planets relative to the sun. It consists of the sun and nine planets, all orbiting the sun in elliptical paths.
The universe comprises numerous celestial bodies, and stars form clusters called galaxies or nebulas. Our local galaxy, the Milky Way, includes twenty-seven galaxies.
A satellite is a smaller celestial body orbiting a planet, and Earth’s natural satellite is the moon.
Solar System Components:
Mercury: None, 57,600,000 km from the sun, 88 days to complete a revolution
Venus: None, 107,200,000 km, 225 days
Earth: One, 148,800,000 km, 365 days
Mars: Two, 227,200,000 km, 687 days
Jupiter: Twelve, 772,800,000 km, 11.9 years
Saturn: Nine, 1,417,600,000 km, 29.5 years
Uranus: Five, 2,854,400,000 km, 84 years
Neptune: Two, 4,468,800,000 km, 164.8 years
Pluto: None, 5,850,000,000 km, 247.7 years
Additional Planet Specifications:
Mercury:
Smallest planet
Closest to the sun
Hottest planet
No living organisms due to high temperature
Shortest orbit around the sun
Venus:
Second closest to the sun
No living organisms
Referred to as “The Earth Twin” due to similar size, mass, and density
Earth:
Only planet supporting life with oxygen and gravity
One natural satellite, the Moon
Mars:
Potential for supporting plant life
Two satellites
Jupiter:
Largest planet in the solar system
Surface contains gases like hydrogen and methane with light and dark bands
Saturn:
Second largest planet after Jupiter
Three rings around it
Uranus:
Only planet with a clockwise orbit around the sun
Takes 84 years to complete its orbit
Neptune:
Very cold due to its distance from the Sun
Two satellites
Pluto:
Farthest planet from the sun
Coldest planet
Longest orbit around the sun
Earth As A Planet
Earth’s Shape:
The Earth possesses a spherical shape, also known as a GEOID. Although our everyday experience may suggest a flat surface, the Earth is nearly spherical, exhibiting slight flattening at the poles. Numerous pieces of evidence support the Earth’s spherical nature.
Earth’s Size:
Ranked as the fifth largest planet in our solar system, Earth spans an approximate surface area of 443 million square kilometers (197 million square miles). With a polar diameter of about 12,722km and an equatorial diameter of about 12,762km, Earth measures approximately 40,085km in circumference at the equator and 39,955km at the poles. Its mean density is estimated at 5.5 grams per cubic centimeter.
Proofs of Earth’s Sphericity:
Circumnavigation: Ferdinand Magellan’s 1519-1522 voyage around the world, and subsequent similar journeys, confirms the Earth’s spherical shape. Such expeditions would encounter an abrupt edge if the Earth were flat.
Sunrise and Sunset: Varied times of sunrise and sunset worldwide refute a flat Earth, supporting its spherical nature as it rotates from west to east.
Aerial Photographs: High-altitude photographs from rockets provide contemporary evidence of the Earth’s spherical shape.
Lunar Eclipse: During a lunar eclipse, the Earth casts a circular shadow on the moon, a phenomenon consistent with a spherical Earth.
Ship’s Visibility: Observing ships approaching or departing ports reveals a gradual appearance or disappearance, which aligns with the Earth’s curvature.
Shape of Other Planets/Planetary Bodies: The circular outlines of celestial bodies, including the sun, moon, and stars, further affirm the Earth’s spherical shape.
Experimental Proof/Engineer Surveys/Driving Poles: In level ground, driving three poles of equal length at the same depth results in the center pole projecting slightly above the others due to the Earth’s curvature.
Earth’s Movement:
The Earth is in constant motion, revolving around the Sun and presenting different sides to the Sun at different times. This movement encompasses both the Rotation of the Earth and the Revolution of the Earth.
Rotation of the Earth:
The Earth’s rotation involves its movement on its axis, completing a full rotation of 360° every 24 hours, constituting a day. Notably, the Earth rotates through 15° in one hour or 1° in four minutes.
Effects of Earth Rotation:
Day and Night: Rotation causes only one part of the Earth’s surface facing the Sun to experience daylight, while the opposite part in shadow experiences darkness (night).
Time Differences: The Earth’s rotation creates local time differences between places, advancing by 1 hour for every 15° eastward and lagging by 1 hour for every 15° westward.
Apparent Sunrise and Sunset: Earth’s rotation leads to the apparent phenomena of sunrise and sunset as different parts emerge or move away from the Sun’s rays.
Deflection of Wind and Ocean Current: Rotation causes wind and ocean currents to deflect, clockwise in the northern hemisphere and anticlockwise in the southern hemisphere.
Daily Rising and Falling of the Tide: Earth’s rotation contributes to the daily tidal cycles, manifesting as the rising and falling of water levels in seas and oceans twice each day.
Earth’s Revolution:
“Revolution” denotes the orbital movement of a celestial body around the sun. In our solar system, the moon orbits the Earth, and the Earth, in turn, revolves around the sun.
The moon completes one orbit around the Earth every month, while the Earth and moon jointly orbit the sun, completing a full revolution once a year. Eclipses occur when the sun, Earth, and moon align in a straight line. A solar eclipse happens when the moon comes between the Earth and the sun, while a lunar eclipse occurs when the Earth is positioned between the sun and the moon.
Revolution, specifically Earth’s orbit around the sun, takes approximately 365 1/4 days, defining one year. Leap years, with 366 days, occur every fourth year, while all other years consist of 365 days.
Effects of Earth Revolution:
Determination of a Year: The time it takes for Earth to complete one revolution around the sun defines a year on our planet, lasting 365 1/4 days.
Seasonal Changes: Revolution influences the seasons, with the tropical belt experiencing two main seasons—rain and dry—while the temperate belt has four distinct seasons: summer, autumn, winter, and spring.
Changes in Altitude of the Mid-Day Sun: Equinoxes and solstices are observed as a result of Earth’s revolution.
Varied Lengths of Day and Night: Depending on Earth’s position in relation to the sun, the length of day and night fluctuates throughout the year.
Seasonal Temperature Changes: The arctic region experiences warm and bright summers and cold, dark winters due to Earth’s revolution.
Dawn and Twilight:
Dawn is the brief period between sunrise and full daylight, while twilight is the brief period between sunset and complete darkness.
Latitude & Longitude
Meaning Of Latitude
Latitude represents the angular distance of a point on Earth’s surface, measured in degrees from the center of the Earth. It runs parallel to the equator, which divides the Earth into the Northern and Southern hemispheres. Lines of latitude are also referred to as parallels.
Important Lines Of Latitude
Notable lines include the equator (0°), North pole (90°N), South pole (90°S), Tropic of Cancer (23 1/2°N), Tropic of Capricorn (23 1/2°S), Arctic Circle (66 1/2°N), and Antarctic Circle (66 1/2°S).
Uses Of Lines Of Latitude
Lines of latitude are employed to pinpoint specific locations on maps and calculate distances between two places on Earth’s surface.
Longitude
Longitude is an angular distance measured in degrees east and west of the Greenwich Meridian. It forms an imaginary line on the Earth running from north to south at right angles to the parallels.
The prime meridian, passing through London and Accra, is on longitude 0°. All longitudes are referred to as meridians.
Important Lines Of Longitude
Noteworthy longitudes include the Prime Meridian (0°), 45°E, 45°W, 90°E, 90°W, 180°E, and others.
Uses Of Lines Of Longitude
Lines of longitude are utilized to determine local time and pinpoint locations on maps.
Similarities between Lines of Latitudes and Meridians
Both aid in locating places on maps.
Both are measured in degrees.
Both are imaginary lines on the globe.
Both consist of great circles.
Differences between Lines of Longitude and Lines of Latitudes
Lines of Latitudes and Lines of Longitudes serve distinct purposes and exhibit notable differences in their characteristics and functions.
Lines of Latitudes:
Great Circle Distinction: The Equator stands out as the singular great circle among lines of latitudes. In contrast to lines of longitudes, which form many great circles, the Equator is unique in creating a complete circle around the Earth.
Length Variation: Lines of latitudes exhibit a characteristic pattern where they are shorter towards the poles. As one moves from the equator towards the poles, the lines progressively decrease in length.
Directional Orientation: Running from west to east, lines of latitudes follow a lateral direction along the Earth’s surface. This directional consistency is a key feature distinguishing them from lines of longitudes.
Parallel Nature: The lines of latitudes are parallel to each other. This parallel arrangement remains constant, contributing to their designation as parallels.
Terminology: Commonly referred to as parallels, lines of latitudes are known for their parallel configuration and are instrumental in measuring distances across the Earth’s surface.
Reference Point: The Equator serves as the primary reference point for lines of latitudes. All measurements are made in relation to this pivotal circle.
Degree Measurement: Latitude measurements extend up to 180°, encompassing the entire range from 90°N (North Pole) to 90°S (South Pole).
Lines of Longitudes:
Multiplicity of Great Circles: Unlike lines of latitudes, lines of longitudes form numerous great circles. These great circles result from the opposite parts of the lines converging, creating a network of circles encircling the Earth.
Uniform Length: In contrast to lines of latitudes, which vary in length, lines of longitudes are of uniform length. Each meridian from pole to pole shares the same degree of length.
North-South Orientation: Lines of longitudes run from north to south, traversing the Earth in a longitudinal direction. This north-south orientation sets them apart from the east-west trajectory of lines of latitudes.
Converging at Poles: Unlike lines of latitudes, lines of longitudes are not parallel. Instead, they converge at the poles, meeting at a singular point at both the North and South Poles.
Meridian Terminology: Referred to as meridians, lines of longitudes are crucial for determining local time and establishing a longitudinal reference system.
Greenwich Meridian: The prime or Greenwich Meridian serves as the central reference point for lines of longitudes. This imaginary line passes through London and Accra and is designated as 0°.
Extended Degree Measurement: Longitudes extend up to 360°, providing a comprehensive measurement system from 180°W to 180°E around the Earth.
In summary, while both lines of latitudes and longitudes contribute to the spatial understanding of Earth, their distinctive characteristics and functions make them essential components of global cartography and geographical analysis.
Great Circle And Small Circle
A great circle is any line dividing the Earth into equal halves, such as lines of longitude (e.g., 0°, 180°W, 180°E). In contrast, a small circle does not divide the Earth equally, except for the Equator, and includes lines of latitude (e.g., 90°N, 90°S, Tropic of Cancer, Tropic of Capricorn).
Calculation Of Distances And Local Time
Distance Calculation Using Lines of Latitude:
Procedure:
Identify the two locations.
Determine the difference in latitude between the two places.
Note:
North to North: Subtract
North to South: Add
South to North: Add
Equator to North or South: Add or subtract accordingly
Multiply the latitude difference by 111km.
(1° of latitude is approximately 111km on land)
Example 1:
Calculate the distance between South Africa (30°S) and Spain (40°N).
Solution:
Latitude difference = 30°S + 40°N = 70°
(Since 1° = 111km)
Distance = 111km × 70 = 7,770km
The distance between South Africa and Spain is 7,770km.
Calculation of Local Time Using Lines of Longitude:
Procedure:
Identify the locations involved.
Find the difference in longitude.
Convert the longitude difference to time.
Adjust the time based on the direction of movement (west or east).
Example:
If the time at Town A (long. 75°W) is 5:00 pm on Friday, what will be the time and day at Town B (long. 120°E)?
Solution:
Longitude difference = 75°W + 120°E = 195°
Conversion to time = 195 (since 15° = 1hr) = 13hrs (15)
Adjustment of time according to the direction of movement = 5:00 pm + 13hrs (add, since it is due east) = 6:00 am on Saturday.
Structure Of The Earth
The Earth’s Outer Structure
The Earth’s outer structure consists of four zones or layers:
Lithosphere:
The solid part of the Earth, composed of rocks and minerals, representing 30% of the Earth’s surface.
Importance:
Forms the foundation for human settlement.
Source of all mineral resources.
Supports transportation infrastructure like roads, railways, and airports.
Facilitates farming activities.
Location for various human activities such as mining and trading.
Hydrosphere:
The liquid portion of the Earth, encompassing oceans, seas, rivers, lakes, etc., covering 70% of the Earth’s crust.
Importance:
Provides water for domestic use.
Acts as a medium for transportation.
Supplies water for industrial purposes.
Sustains diverse aquatic life, including fish and prawns.
Offers employment opportunities.
Serves as a tourist attraction.
Contributes to the generation of hydro-electric power (HEP).
Atmosphere:
The gaseous portion of the Earth, comprising 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, 0.03% carbon dioxide, and 0.097% rare gases.
Importance:
Acts as the habitat for some living organisms.
Provides oxygen for respiration.
Supplies carbon dioxide for photosynthesis.
Facilitates combustion by providing oxygen.
Serves as a medium for transportation.
Supplies nitrogen for protein synthesis in plants.
Biosphere:
The zone of the Earth where living things are found.
Importance:
Plants in this zone provide food for humans.
Offers employment opportunities.
Supplies raw materials.
Plays a crucial role in balancing and purifying the atmosphere.
Internal Structure Of The Earth
The Earth’s internal composition comprises three concentric layers:
(a) The crust, also known as the lithosphere.
(b) The mantle, referred to as the mesosphere.
(c) The core, known as the barysphere.
The Crust:
The crust can be further divided into upper and lower sections. The upper crust, forming the continents, is composed of granite rocks, with silica and aluminium as the main minerals collectively known as SIAL. It has an average density of 2.7. The lower part of the Earth’s crust, constituting the ocean floor, is made up of basalt rocks containing minerals like silica, iron, and magnesium, collectively referred to as SIMA, with an average density of 3.0.
The Mantle:
Located just beneath the crust, the mantle is approximately 290 km thick and has a density of 3.3. The main mineral in this zone is olivine, and it exists in a plastic and semi-liquid state.
The Core:
Situated at the Earth’s innermost part, the core has a radius of about 3500 km. Comprised of two minerals, iron and nickel (NIFE), the core reaches extremely high temperatures, estimated to be as high as 2000°C, and is in a molten state.
Rocks Of The Earth
The Earth’s crust is composed of rocks, which are mineral materials of the Earth. These rocks can be combinations of various mineral elements, such as silica containing silicon and oxygen. They vary in texture, structure, colour, permeability, mode of occurrence, and resistance to denudation.
Rocks are categorized into three types: Igneous rocks, Sedimentary rocks, and Metamorphic rocks.
Characteristics of Igneous rocks:
Crystalline structure with crystals present.
Absence of layering.
Lack of fossils.
Typically hard and impervious.
Resistance to erosion and weathering.
Formation Process:
Igneous rocks are formed by the cooling and solidification of molten magma expelled from beneath the Earth’s crust. As the magma approaches the surface, it encounters lower temperatures, leading to cooling and solidification, resulting in the formation of igneous rocks.
There are two major types of Igneous rocks:
Plutonic (Intrusive) Igneous rocks: Formed inside the Earth’s crust before reaching the surface, resulting in rocks with large crystals (e.g., granite, gabbro, diorite).
Volcanic (Extrusive) Igneous rocks: Formed outside the Earth’s crust due to the cooling and solidification of molten magma on the surface, leading to rocks with small crystals (e.g., basalt).
Characteristics of Sedimentary Rocks:
Occur in layers or strata.
Can be coarse, fine, soft, or hard.
Lack crystalline structure.
Do not contain fossils.
Not resistant to erosion.
Formation Process:
Sedimentary rocks are formed from sediments deposited by water, wind, or ice. These sediments accumulate in layers, and over time, compression hardens them to create sedimentary rocks, which are stratified or layered.
There are three main types of Sedimentary rocks based on their mode of formation:
Mechanically formed Sedimentary rocks: Formed from accumulated sediments of other rocks over time (e.g., sandstone, breccia, shale, clay, conglomerates).
Organically formed Sedimentary rocks: Formed from the remains of living organisms, such as plants and animals. Those derived from plant remains are known as CARBONACEOUS Rocks (e.g., Coal, Peat, Lignite, Petroleum), while those from animal remains are CALCAREOUS Rocks (e.g., Limestone and Chalk).
Chemically formed Sedimentary rocks: Precipitated chemically from solutions (e.g., Potash, Sodium Chloride, Nitrate, Gypsum, and Dolomite).
Geographic Information System (GIS)
A system designed for capturing, storing, manipulating, analyzing, managing, and presenting various types of spatial or geographical data is known as a Geographic Information System (GIS).
The use of the acronym GIS extends to Geographical Information Science or Geospatial Information Studies, referring to the academic discipline or career focused on working with geographic information systems. This field is a significant domain within the broader academic discipline of Geoinformatics.
Broadly speaking, GIS encompasses any information system that integrates, stores, edits, analyzes, shares, and displays geographic information. GIS applications serve as tools enabling users to generate interactive queries, analyze spatial information, edit map data, and showcase the outcomes of these operations. Geographic information science forms the scientific foundation for understanding geographic concepts, applications, and systems.
When it comes to data representation, GIS represents real-world objects such as roads, land use, elevation, trees, and waterways. These real objects are categorized into two abstractions: discrete objects (e.g., a house) and continuous fields (like rainfall amounts or elevations).
Traditionally, two broad methods are employed for storing data in a GIS, applicable to both discrete and continuous abstractions: raster images and vector mapping references.
Major Landforms Of The World
Mountains
Mountains are elevated land surfaces formed by intense internal forces, displaying steep slopes and distinct peaks. They are categorized into four main types: Fold Mountains, Block Mountains, Volcanic Mountains, and Residual Mountains.
(a) Fold Mountains
Characteristics: These mountains consist of old hard rocks with steep sides, exhibiting a wrinkled or folded appearance and prominent peaks. They exist in layered form, with soft rocks displaying anticlines and synclines.
Mode of Formation: Formed by large-scale horizontal earth movement due to stress and compressional forces, resulting in the compression of the earth’s crust. The compressional forces produce wrinkling or folding, forming anticlines and synclines. Complex forces can lead to asymmetrical folding, overfolds, and recumbent folds, with extreme folding causing faults or cracks to form over thrust folds.
(b) Block Mountains
Characteristics: Composed of old hard rocks with flat or slightly sloping surfaces, featuring steep sides and associated with rift valleys. Examples include Hunsruck Mountain, Voges Mountain, and the Black Forest of the Rhine land.
Mode of Formation: Formed when the earth cracks due to faulting caused by tensional or compressional forces. Tensional forces create normal faults, while compressional forces lead to reverse or thrust faults. Block Mountains result from the rising of a block of rock between two normal faults or the subsiding of land on either side of the block, forming a block mountain or Horst. Occasionally, a block may subside, creating a rift valley or graben. Denudation agents modify the slopes and height of Block Mountains.
(c) Volcanic Mountains
Characteristics: Composed of lava, with irregular sides and a conical shape. Materials include ash, volcanic bombs, and cinders arranged in layers. Examples include Mt. Fuji (Japan), Mt. Mayon (Philippines), and various African mountains.
Mode of Formation: Formed from volcanoes built by materials ejected through fissures or vents in the earth’s crust, including molten magma, lava, volcanic bombs, cinders, ash, dust, and liquid mud. These materials accumulate around the vent, forming a volcanic cone. Volcanic Mountains are also referred to as Mountains of Accumulation.
(d) Residual Mountains
Characteristics: Formed from the remnants of existing mountains, displaying irregular surfaces with steep sides and occurring in varying heights and sizes. Examples include Mt. Manodnock (U.S.A), Highlands of Scotland, Highlands of Scandinavia, and the Decon Plateau.
Mode of Formation: Formed from existing mountains lowered or reduced by agents of denudation such as running water, ice, and wind. Residual Mountains are the remaining hard and resistant parts of existing mountains after the upper part has been lowered.
Mountains are elevated land surfaces formed by the intense action of internal forces, featuring steep slopes and distinct peaks. They are categorized into four major types based on their formation: Fold Mountains, Block Mountains, Volcanic Mountains, and Residual Mountains.
(a) Fold Mountains:
Characteristics: Comprising old hard rocks with steep sides, exhibiting a wrinkled or folded appearance with distinct peaks. They exist in layered form, containing anticlines and synclines.
Mode of Formation: Formed by large-scale horizontal earth movements due to stress and compressional forces, resulting in the compression of rocks and the formation of anticlines and synclines.
(b) Block Mountains:
Characteristics: Made up of old hard rocks with flat or slightly sloping surfaces, featuring steep sides and often associated with rift valleys.
Mode of Formation: Formed through earth cracking due to faulting, which may result from tensional or compressional forces. Block Mountains arise when a block of rock between two normal faults rises or when the land on either side of the block subsides.
(c) Volcanic Mountains:
Characteristics: Composed of lava, with irregular sides and a conical shape. Materials include ash, volcanic bombs, and cinders arranged in layers.
Mode of Formation: Formed by volcanoes built from materials ejected through fissures or vents in the earth’s crust, including molten lava, volcanic bombs, cinders, ash, dust, and liquid mud.
(d) Residual Mountains:
Characteristics: Formed from the remains of pre-existing mountains, exhibiting irregular surfaces with steep sides.
Mode of Formation: Created by the lowering or reduction of existing mountains through agents of denudation such as running water, ice, and wind. Residual mountains represent the remaining hard and resistant parts of the original mountains.
Importance or Uses of Mountains:
Sources of minerals.
Formation of rainfall.
Transhumance.
Climatic barriers.
Defense.
Tourist centers.
Construction of Hydro-Electric Power.
Wind-breaks.
Disadvantages of Mountains:
Barriers to communication.
Prevention of human habitation.
Promotion of soil erosion.
Occupation of good land that could be used for other purposes.
Poor nutrient content in mountain soil.
Plateaux: Types of Plateau, Tectonic Plateaux, Volcanic or Lava Plateau
Plateaux, elevated uplands characterized by extensive flat or level surfaces that typically descend sharply to the surrounding lowlands, exhibit a gentle slope. Due to their flat or level characteristics, they are commonly referred to as tablelands. Plateaus are tabular in shape, featuring steep sides with a rough and irregular surface, narrow valleys, and are occasionally utilized as hydrological centers. Mesas and buttes may also be found in these regions.
The majority of plateaux are remnants of ancient mountain ranges.
Types of Plateau:
(1) Tectonic Plateau
(2) Volcanic Plateau
(3) Dissected Plateau
(a) Tectonic Plateaux:
Formation: These plateaux result from earth movements that uplift certain areas and depress others. The uplifted areas of level or undulating land form tectonic plateaux, while the depressed areas form basins.
There are two types of tectonic plateaux: Table Land and Intermont. Examples include the Deccan Plateau (India), Harz (Germany), and Mesetal (Liberia). Intermont is formed when uplifted areas are enclosed by fold mountains, as seen in the Tibetan plateau between the Himalayas and Kunlun, and the Bolivia plateau.
(b) Volcanic or Lava Plateau:
Formation: These plateaux form when molten lava emerges from the earth’s crust through a vent and spreads out in successive layers. The cooled and solidified lava forms volcanic or lava plateaux. Examples include the Antrim Plateau of Northern Ireland and the Columbia Snake Plateau.
(c) Dissected Plateau:
Formation: These plateaux are shaped by weathering and denudation agents, such as running water, wind, and ice, which wear down large and extensive plateaux into remnants with irregular surfaces called dissected plateaux. They may also form due to uplift. Examples include the Jos Plateau (Nigeria), edges of the Fouta Djallon Plateau (Guinea), and Kumasi Plateau (Ghana).
Importance or Uses of Plateau:
Some plateaux are sources of valuable minerals like tin, gold, and diamonds.
Certain plateaux serve as tourist attractions.
Plateaux are sources of rivers.
Plateaux with cold climates, like the Jos Plateau, encourage human settlement.
Due to their cold climate and fertility, most plateaux support specialized farming, cultivating specific crops.
Plateaux also support the growth of pasture grasses and legumes, facilitating animal rearing such as cattle, sheep, and goats.
Disadvantages of Plateaux:
Some plateaux act as barriers to communication, hindering the construction of roads, railways, and airports.
Erosion associated with certain plateaux can impede or prevent serious farming activities.
Low Land (Plains)
A plain is an extensive area of level or gently undulating land, typically located a few meters above sea level.
Types of Plains:
(1) Structural Plain
(2) Erosional Plain
(3) Depositional Plain
(1) Structural Plains
Formation: These are relatively undisturbed horizontal surfaces of the earth, created by bedded sedimentary rocks. Examples include the Russian Platform and the Great Plains of the U.S.A.
(2) Erosional Plains
Formation: These plains result from denudation agents like rivers, wind, rain, glaciers, and ocean waves, wearing irregular rock surfaces into smooth plains. The plains formed by denudation are called peneplains, while those formed by wind reducing highland to a flat, gentle land are called pediplains. Examples include the Canadian Shield, Reg, and Hamada of the Sahara desert.
(3) Depositional Plains
Formation: These plains are created by the deposition of materials or sediments transported by various agents like rivers, wind, waves, and glaciers.
Depositional plains are categorized as follows
(a) Alluvial Plains
(b) Flood Plains
(c) Deltaic Plains
(d) Outwash Plain
(e) Aeolian Plains
(f) Lacustrine Plains
(g) Coastal Plains
Importance or Uses of Plains:
(1) Plains, especially level ones, are suitable for human habitation, with populations and settlements concentrated on them.
(2) Some plains are rich sources of minerals such as petroleum and coal.
(3) Depositional plains, especially, have fertile soils favoring intensive agriculture.
(4) Plains are conducive to the construction of roads, railways, and airports.
(5) In regions with low rainfall, plains are ideal for animal rearing as they support pasture growth.
(6) Rivers in plains provide water for drinking and transportation.
(7) Rivers in plains offer job opportunities, such as fishing.
Disadvantages of Plains:
(1) Some plains, especially in delta areas, may experience flooding, limiting human activities.
(2) Some plains can pose serious barriers to communication, particularly when water is involved, increasing the cost of development, e.g., construction of flyovers.
The Environment
The environment is the complete surroundings or medium of any organism in a given area, encompassing physical surroundings, climatic factors, and other living organisms.
The Earth is categorized into four spheres:
Lithosphere: The solid portion containing rocks, sand, soil, minerals, etc.
Hydrosphere: The liquid portion, including rivers, lakes, and oceans.
Atmosphere: The gaseous portion with gases like oxygen, nitrogen, carbon dioxide, and ozone.
Biosphere: The area where plants and animals are found.
These spheres are interconnected and rely on each other.
Ecosystem:
An ecosystem is the community of plants and animals coexisting harmoniously and interacting with their physical surroundings. In simpler terms, it is the relationship between living things and their non-living environment.
Components of Ecosystem:
The ecosystem comprises two main components:
(a) Abiotic (non-living) component: Elements like soil, water, gases, sunlight, etc.
(b) Biotic component: The living aspect, including plants and animals, grouped into autotrophs (producers), heterotrophs (consumers), and decomposers.
Autotrophs: Green plants producing their own food through photosynthesis.
Heterotrophs: Primary and secondary consumers relying on plants for food.
Decomposers: Micro-organisms breaking down dead organic matter to release nutrients.
Interdependence within the Ecosystem:
Interdependence describes the relationship among ecosystem components, as they rely on each other and cannot exist in isolation. This interdependence manifests in three ways:
Interdependence within abiotic components (e.g., weathering of rocks forming soil).
Interdependence within biotic components (e.g., animals depending on plants for food).
Interdependence between biotic and abiotic components (e.g., plants relying on soil for support and nutrients).
Environmental Balance:
Environmental balance involves recycling matter and the flow of energy within an ecosystem to ensure a continuous supply. This balance is maintained through processes like the hydrological cycle, carbon cycle, nitrogen cycle, mineral or nutrient cycle, and food chain and food web.
Weather And Climate
Weather refers to the atmospheric conditions of a location at a specific time or over a short duration. It is characterized by brief and regular changes, such as sunny, rainy, or cloudy days.
Climate, on the other hand, is the average atmospheric conditions of a region over an extended period. Unlike weather, climate persists for a long time before any significant changes occur.
The elements of weather and climate encompass temperature, rainfall, wind, pressure, relative humidity, cloud cover, and sunshine.
Climate variations across the globe are influenced by factors like latitude, altitude, distance from the sea, ocean currents, planetary winds, pressure belts, slope, aspect, cloud cover, natural vegetation, and soil.
The impact of weather and climate on human activities is profound:
Human Settlement: Weather and climate influence the rate at which people inhabit a place.
Health: Humid environments can foster the growth of disease-causing microorganisms, leading to higher death rates in tropical regions compared to temperate countries.
Environmental Hazards: Differences in weather and climate contribute to hazards such as soil erosion, rainstorms, floods, and droughts.
Vegetation: The type and density of vegetation are determined by temperature and rainfall.
Clothing: Climate dictates the type of clothing worn; cold climates require thick garments, while hot climates demand light attire.
Housing: Climate influences the design and structure of houses, with hot regions favouring air-conditioned homes.
Agriculture: Rainfall and temperature play crucial roles in determining the types of crops suitable for cultivation.
Soil Formation: Climate affects the rate of rock disintegration, influencing soil formation.
Communication and Transportation: Weather and climate impact the choice of transportation methods in different areas.
Occupation: The climate of a region often determines the primary occupations of its inhabitants.
Cultural Activities: Climate can also shape cultural activities, influencing preferences for winter or summer sports.
Health (again): The type of climate can affect health, as certain climates may favor the breeding of disease vectors like mosquitoes.
Monitoring weather conditions involves the use of instruments such as rain gauges for measuring rainfall, thermometers for temperature, wind vanes for wind direction, anemometers for wind speed, barometers for atmospheric pressure, and hygrometers for relative humidity.
For example, rainfall is measured using a rain gauge, with calculations like mean monthly rainfall, annual rainfall, and annual range of rainfall being determined through specific formulas. Temperature is measured with a thermometer, with calculations involving mean daily temperature, diurnal range, monthly range, annual temperature, and mean annual temperature.
Wind direction is measured using a wind vane, while wind speed is gauged with an anemometer. Atmospheric pressure is measured with a barometer, and relative humidity is determined using a hygrometer, comparing readings from wet and dry-bulb thermometers.
Components Of Geographic Information System (GIS)
A system dedicated to capturing, storing, manipulating, analyzing, managing, and presenting various spatial or geographical data is known as a Geographic Information System (GIS). The term GIS may also refer to Geographical Information Science or Geospatial Information Studies, denoting the academic field or profession associated with working on geographic information systems. This falls within the broader discipline of Geoinformatics.
In a broader context, GIS encompasses any information system that integrates, stores, edits, analyzes, shares, and displays geographic information. GIS applications serve as tools enabling users to generate interactive queries, analyze spatial information, modify data on maps, and communicate the outcomes of these operations. Geographic information science forms the scientific foundation for understanding geographic concepts, applications, and systems.
Various sources contribute to the pool of geographic data, including satellite images, existing maps, land surveys, socio-economic statistical records, aerial photographs, and fieldwork or surveys.
GIS is comprised of five essential components:
Hardware: Includes devices such as keyboards, CPUs, mice, hard disks, etc.
Software: Encompasses applications like Microsoft Word, Corel Draw, Microsoft Excel, computer games, etc.
Data
People: Refers to those involved in designing, maintaining, and developing plans for the system.
Method: A successful GIS operates based on a well-designed plan and established business rules.
Introduction To Map Reading
The geographical aspect related to map reading is commonly known as Practical Geography. It involves the skill of recognizing conventional signs on a map and utilizing these signs to interpret the representation of the earth’s surface on paper. A map provides an overhead view of a large land area, such as a town, village, or country, condensed onto a single page.
Various types of maps exist, including Topographical Maps, Atlas Maps, Plan Maps, and Sketch Maps.
MAP SCALE
The map scale indicates the correlation between distances on the map and actual distances on the ground. It represents the ratio or proportion between measurements on the map and those on the ground. For example, a scale of 2cm to 1km signifies that two centimeters on the map represent one kilometer on the ground.
TYPES OF SCALE
Three types of scale are Statement scale, Linear scale, and Representative scale.
A) Statement Scale
This type of scale is presented as a statement with accompanying figures, such as 1cm to 2km (indicating 1cm on the map represents 2km on the ground) or 2cm to 1km.
Question: If the map scale is 2cm to 1km, what is the ground distance if the distance on the map between two towns is 10cm?
Solution:
Map distance = 10cm
Ground distance = 10 x (1/2) = 5km
B) Linear Scale
Linear scale is a drawn line illustrating the relationship between map distances and actual ground distances. It consists of primary and secondary divisions.
HOW TO USE LINEAR SCALE
Measure the distance between two places on the map.
Use a ruler or thread to measure the distance in cm or inches.
Align the measured distance with the linear scale, starting from zero and stretching to the right.
If the length exceeds the scale, record the distance where the scale ends, measure the remaining part, and add the two measurements.
C) Representative Fraction
This scale is expressed as a fraction or ratio, where the numerator represents the map distance, always one (1), and the denominator represents the ground distance.
E.g., 1: 100,000; 1: 50,000; 1: 200,000, etc.
How To Use Representative Fraction
Identify the two places involved.
Measure the distance between them.
Relate the measured distance to the representative fraction.
Question: If the map scale is 1:50,000, what is the ground distance if the distance on the map between two towns is 10cm?
Solution:
Map distance = 10cm
Ground distance = 10 x (1/2) = 5km
SIZE OF A SCALE
The size of a scale can be classified as either small or large.
A) Small Scale Map
Shows a large area but lacks intricate details, displaying only crucial features. The larger the denominator, the smaller the scale (e.g., 1:1,000,000).
B) Large Scale Map
Shows a small area with more details and important features. The smaller the denominator, the larger the scale (e.g., 1:5,000).
Map Distances
Distance on a map refers to the interval between two points, which can take either a straight or curved path.
Measurement of Straight Distances:
Identify the locations on the map.
Employ a long ruler to measure the distance between the specified points.
Relate the measured distance to the scale provided to determine the ground distance.
Measurement of Curve Distances:
This can be accomplished through three methods:
Utilize a pair of dividers.
Employ a piece of thread.
Use the straight edge of a paper.
Among these methods, the most straightforward and effective is the use of thread. To employ a piece of thread, stretch it along the route or curve to be measured, carefully following the path. Mark the end of the distance on the thread and transfer it to the linear scale or calculate the distance using a statement or R.F scale.
Direction:
Express the direction of one place from another using compass points or cardinal points. While there are four cardinal points (North, South, East, and West), for increased precision, eight cardinal points are often utilized, including North, North‑East, North‑West, South, South‑East, South‑West, East, and West.
Procedures for Measuring Direction:
Locate the two places on the map.
Position the four cardinal points at the given locations.
Use a ruler to connect the place from which you want to determine the direction to the reference point.
The cardinal point on or near that line indicates the direction.
Bearing:
Bearing describes the location of one place from another, expressed in degrees using a protractor and measured clockwise from North.
Procedures for Measuring Bearing:
Locate the two places on the map.
Position the four cardinal points at the reference point.
Use a ruler to connect the two places.
Place a protractor on the line, and the degrees falling on that line represent the bearing.
Location, Position And Size Of Nigeria
Location Of Nigeria
Nigeria is situated between 4°N and 14°N of the Equator, and between 30°E and 150°E of the Greenwich Meridian. Notably, Nigeria’s latitudinal extent spans 10°, calculated as 15° – 4°, while its longitudinal extent covers 12°, calculated as 15° – 3°.
Position Of Nigeria
Nigeria is positioned in West Africa, bordered to the North by Niger Republic, to the North-East by Chad Republic, to the East by Cameroon Republic, to the South by the Atlantic Ocean, and to the West by Benin Republic. It shares boundaries with French-speaking (Francophone) West African countries.
Size:
Nigeria ranks as the fourth-largest country in West Africa by land area, trailing Niger Republic, Mali, and Mauritania. The total land area of Nigeria is approximately 923,768 sq km. Its greatest distance from east to west is about 1,300 km, while from north to south, it spans approximately 1,100 km. With a population exceeding 140 million according to the 2006 census, Nigeria is often referred to as “The Giant of Africa.”
Political Division
Established in 1914 through the amalgamation of the Northern and Southern protectorates, Nigeria gained independence on October 1, 1960. Prior to independence, the country was governed by colonial masters, including Sir Fredrick Lord Lugard (1912–1919) and Sir James Robertson (1958–1960).
Politically, Nigeria is divided into 36 states and the Federal Capital Territory (FCT). Each state has a distinct slogan or title for identification. The states, along with their capitals and slogans, are as follows:
Relief refers to the surface features of the land above the sea level. Nigeria’s relief can be classified into two main types: lowlands and highlands.
Lowlands
Lowlands are areas below 300m above sea level. Notable lowland areas in Nigeria include:
The Sokoto Plain (200 – 300m)
The Niger – Benue Trough / Valley (100 – 300m)
The Chad Basin or Bornu Plain
The Niger Delta (0 – 100)
The Cross River Basin (120 – 180)
The Coastal Plain (0 – 100)
The interior coastal lowland of western Nigeria (100 – 300m)
Rocks Associated With Lowlands
The coastal plain: Sedimentary rocks of alluvial deposit.
Niger – Benue Trough: Sedimentary rocks such as limestone, sandstone, and shale.
Sokoto plain: Sedimentary rocks like sand, clay, sandstone, and limestone.
Chad basin: Sedimentary rocks of sand and clay.
Sedimentary rocks are generally associated with lowlands.
Importance Of Lowlands
Plains, especially level ones, are suitable for human habitation and settlement.
Some plains are rich sources of minerals like petroleum and coal.
Depositional plains are fertile for agriculture.
Level plains favor communication infrastructure like roads, railways, and airports.
Rivers and plains (basin) provide job opportunities, e.g., fishing.
Rearing of animals is better done on level grounds.
Some plains have rivers that provide water for various purposes.
Disadvantages Of Plains
Delta areas may experience flooding, posing environmental hazards.
Some plains may create communication barriers, especially in flooded areas.
Highlands
Highlands are areas above 300m above sea level. Highlands in Nigeria include:
The North-Central highlands
The Western highlands
The Eastern highlands
The Eastern scarp land
Rocks Associated With Highlands
North-central plateau, Western highland, Mandara Mountain, Shebshi, Alantika, Obudu, and Oban hills are made up of basement complex rocks (a combination of igneous and metamorphic rocks).
Jos plateau is made up of volcanic rocks.
Udi hills are made up of Carboniferous sedimentary rock.
Importance Of Highlands
Sources of minerals.
Formation of rainfall, especially orographic rainfall.
Used for defense in times of war.
Serve as windbreaks.
Good sources of rivers.
Rivers provide sites for the construction of Hydro-Electric Power (HEP).
Provide tourist centers.
Used for transhumance.
Disadvantages Of Mountains
Barriers to communication.
Promote soil erosion.
Occupy land that could be used for other purposes.
Prevent human habitation.
Mountainous soils are poor in nutrients and not suitable for agriculture.
Nigeria: Drainage
Drainage refers to water bodies like rivers and lakes.
Rivers In Nigeria
Nigeria is drained by two main rivers: River Niger and River Benue. River Niger is the largest river in Nigeria, originating from the Guinea highlands in Guinea, passing through Mali and Niger Republic to Nigeria, and emptying into the Atlantic Ocean. River Benue has its source from the eastern highlands and joins River Niger at Lokoja.
Characteristics Of Nigerian Rivers
The volume changes with seasons.
Presence of rapids and cataracts impedes inland navigation.
Presence of debris like dead leaves, mud, wood, etc.
Short courses with high speed.
Specific direction of flow, with southern rivers flowing north-south and northern rivers flowing radially.
Shallowness.
Color changes with the season.
Seasonality, with most rivers flowing during the rainy season.
Importance Of Nigeria Rivers
Medium of transportation.
Generation of Hydro-Electric Power (H.E.P).
Irrigation purposes.
Domestic uses.
Industrial uses.
Provision of employment.
Recreation/Tourism.
Source of food supply (fishes, etc).
River Basin
River basin refers to the area generally drained by a river. In Nigeria, there are five major river basins: The Niger basin, The Benue basin, The Chad basin, The Cross River basin, and The South Atlantic basin.
Importance Of River Basin
Good site for settlement.
Provision of suitable lands for agricultural purposes.
Medium of communication due to the presence of rivers.
Presence of some mineral deposits.
Provision of water.
Provision of sites for fishing.
Lakes In Nigeria
A lake is a body of water surrounded by land. Lakes in Nigeria are grouped into two major types: Man-made or artificial lakes and Natural lakes. Examples include Lake Kainji (man-made) on River Niger and Lake Chad (natural).
Nigeria Climate
Climate refers to the prolonged average atmospheric weather conditions, typically spanning 30-35 years.
Various factors influence climate, including latitude, altitude, proximity to the sea, ocean currents, etc.
Key elements of climate encompass temperature, rainfall, wind, relative humidity, pressure, cloud cover, and sunshine.
Temperature, indicating the degree of hotness or coldness, exhibits regional disparities in Nigeria. The south experiences lower temperatures (around 24°C) due to the cooling effects of the Atlantic Ocean, while the north encounters higher temperatures, influenced by the Sahara Desert or distance from the sea. Altitude also contributes, with high-altitude areas like Jos plateau having lower temperatures (20°C), contrasting with the warmer lowlands.
Seasonal variations affect temperature, with the north experiencing higher temperatures during the rainy season and the south having lower temperatures in the dry season due to harmattan effects.
Wind, defined as air in motion, plays a significant role in Nigeria’s climate. Notable winds include the Tropical Maritime Airmass (south-west trade wind) bringing rain to the south, Tropical Continental Airmass (north-east trade wind) causing dryness in the north, Equatorial Easterlies around the equator, and local land and sea breezes along the coast.
Nigeria experiences two main seasons: wet and dry. The dry season is influenced by the tropical continental air mass and the southwesterly wind.
Rainfall distribution is uneven, increasing from the coast inland. The coast receives rain for 8 to 12 months, while the northwest and northeast receive less than four months of rain. Mean annual rainfall varies from 2000mm along the coast to less than 600mm in the north.
Insolation (incoming solar radiation) is generally high throughout Nigeria, with less in the south due to thicker cloud cover. The north receives the highest insolation, and sunshine hours are fewer in the rainy season.
Relative humidity decreases towards the north, with higher humidity in the south and during the rainy season.
Nigeria Vegetation And Soils
Nigeria’s vegetation can be categorized into three primary zones:
Forest Zone/Vegetation:
(a) Mangrove Swamp Forest: Features both salt and fresh water swamp environments.
(b) Rain Forest
Savanna Zone/Vegetation:
(a) Guinea Savanna
(b) Sudan Savanna
(c) Sahel Savanna
Montane Vegetation:
(a) Primarily found in highland areas like Jos and Adamawa.
As for the soils in Nigeria, they can be classified into four major zones:
Zone of Laterite Soil:
Located in the interior regions of Nigeria (e.g., Jos, Makurdi, Minna, Enugu, Abuja).
Associated with Guinea Savanna, heavily leached due to rainfall, resulting in reddish coloration due to iron presence.
Zone of Sandy Soil:
Found in the extreme northern part of Nigeria (e.g., Sokoto, Katsina, Kano, Damaturu, Maiduguri).
Associated with Sudan and Sahel Savanna, formed due to arid conditions and wind-deposited sand.
Zone of Forest Soil:
Predominantly located in the southern belt and southwestern part of Nigeria (e.g., Ibadan, Akure, Benin City, Ogun, Anambra, Imo).
Associated with forest vegetation, rich in humus due to fallen and decayed leaves.
Zone of Alluvial Soils:
Found around Ilorin, Lokoja, and the Niger-Delta areas (Warri, Port-Harcourt, Calabar).
Associated with fine alluvial soil deposits at the lower course of rivers.
Transportation And Industry
Transportation in Nigeria involves the movement of people, goods, and commodities from one place to another by land, water, or air.
Land Transport:
Human portage: Involves using human legs for movement, such as trekking, applicable for short distances.
Animal portage: Involves using animals like horses, donkeys, or camels for movement, common in the northern part of Nigeria.
Road Transport: Involves the use of motor cars, buses, motorcycles, lorries, and trucks.
Advantages of Road Transportation:
Common means of transportation.
Provides door-to-door services.
Makes goods available in scarce areas.
Feeds water, rail, and air transportation.
Disadvantages of Road Transportation:
Expensive to construct and maintain.
Difficult construction, especially in the rainy season.
Limited capacity for goods and passengers.
Prone to accidents.
Requires daily maintenance.
Limitations of Road Transportation:
Presence of highlands and rugged relief.
Presence of swampy areas.
Soil erosion caused by heavy rain.
Lack of finance for road construction and maintenance.
Rail Transport:
– Involves transportation by rail using trains, mainly utilizing narrow gauge railway lines.
Advantages of Rail Transport:
Convenient for transporting bulky goods.
Cost-effective.
Can cover long distances.
Helps open up new lands.
Disadvantages of Rail Transport:
High cost of construction and maintenance.
Slow compared to other means.
Stopping at each station wastes time.
Depends on roads for passenger feed.
Limitations of Rail Transport:
Slowness.
Low patronage and competition.
Lack of spare parts and narrow gauge.
Inadequate funding and technical know-how.
Air Transport:
Involves movement by air using airplanes, helicopters, jets, and rockets.
Advantages of Air Transport:
Fastest means of transport.
Uses direct routes.
Can reach anywhere with landing facilities.
Suitable for urgent shipments.
Easily crosses obstacles like mountains and large oceans.
Disadvantages of Air Transport:
Expensive operation and maintenance.
Highly expensive overall.
Affected by bad weather.
Safety concerns with plane crashes and hijacking.
Limitations of Air Transport:
Limited capital for airport construction.
Inadequate spare parts.
Weather hazards.
Low patronage due to cost.
Poor management and inadequate security.
Solutions for Air Transport:
Source loans for airport and airplane maintenance.
Procure spare parts.
Ensure efficient management.
Keep airfare affordable to attract passengers.
Water Transport:
Involves the movement of people, goods, and services by water, divided into ocean and inland water navigation.
Advantages of Water Transport:
Cheapest means between countries.
Oceans are free for all nations to use.
Ideal for moving bulky goods internationally.
Low construction and maintenance costs.
Suitable for long-distance transport.
Relatively safe.
Disadvantages of Water Transport:
Slow compared to air and land.
High cost of acquiring ships and their parts.
Limited technical know-how.
Limitations of Water Transport:
Presence of waterfalls, rapids, and cataracts.
Presence of floating vegetation.
Limited usefulness in landlocked countries.
Seasonality of rivers.
Shallowness of rivers.
Sea sickness.
Solutions for Water Transport:
Regular dredging of rivers.
Grants for seaport construction and maintenance.
Improvement of medical facilities on board.
Construction of canals to bypass obstacles.
Contributions of Transportation to Nigeria’s Economic Development:
Movement of goods and services.
Movement of people.
Specific purposes like surveying.
National and international trade.
Opening up of new lands and areas.
National integration.
Development of tourism.
Employment.
Generation of revenue.
Problems of Transportation:
Physical factors include highlands, marshy areas, soil erosion, and poor visibility.
Human factors include lack of capital, technical know-how, low patronage, and bad roads.
Industries in Nigeria:
Manufacturing industries transform raw materials into new products through mechanical or chemical processes.
Characteristics of Manufacturing Industries:
Reliance on imported skilled labor.
Dependence on foreign countries for raw materials.
Concentration in urban centers.
Predominance of light industries.
Labor-intensive processes.
Local market consumption.
Small-scale operations.
Classification of Manufacturing Industries:
Light Industries: Produce lightweight goods like matches, television sets, and books.
Consumer Goods Industries: Turn raw materials into consumable goods, usually located in cities.
Heavy Industries: Produce heavy or bulky goods, such as metallurgical and petroleum industries.
Classification Based on Functions:
Primary Industries: Extract raw materials from nature (extractive industries).
Secondary Industries: Transform raw materials into finished goods.
Tertiary Industries: Provide services, either direct (trading, banking) or indirect (police, customs).